Happy Fourth of July, Space Fans! As the United States celebrates its 250th birthday, we here at Space.com got to thinking. How have things changed in space since 1776? What was the night sky like? What have we learned and where might we go in the next 250 years?

The results are what you see below. A series of stories (some serious and some less so) about the last 250 years of space exploration, NASA and American achievements in space and what lies ahead. We even took a look at what Space.com might have looked like if we were around in 1776. Take a look!

This Week In Space podcast: Episode 217 — America in Space

On Episode 217 of This Week In Space, Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik discuss the progression of American space efforts. Since 1958, the United States has been part of the spaceflight adventure, and since the mid-1960s has led in just about any category that counts. In this episode, we review which flights launched or landed on July 4, and relive some of our very favorite US space missions of all time!

Watch the podcast for FREE here!

What did the night sky look like on the 1st Independence Day 250 years ago?

What did the evening sky look like for Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and their contemporaries on July 4, 1776? To understand the sky more fully, it helps to look at how people in 1776 tracked celestial events and what they would have expected to see overhead.

Read our full story by Skywatching Columnist Joe Rao.

Human flight was still 7 years away in 1776. Now, we're headed back to the moon

We made some halting steps over the centuries — getting kites aloft in ancient China, for example, and drawing up ambitious but unrealized flying machines during the Renaissance — but our boots were still firmly rooted on the ground when the United States of America was born on July 4, 1776.

Read how things have changed in 250 years as told by Spaceflight and Tech Editor Mike Wall.

Celebrate 250 years of America with the Estes Liberty Star model rocket

Aside from fireworks, what better way to celebrate 250 years of independence than by launching your own model rocket into the sky? The limited edition Estes Liberty Star rocket is the perfect model for the job, decked out with a blue and red styling and featuring beginner friendly assembly for an easy setup.

Our E-commerce Writer Harry Bennett has the deal.

You can get the Estes Liberty Star America 250th Celebration model rocket for $38.84 on Amazon

America 250: A star whose light headed to us in 1776

The United States' 250th birthday is right around the corner and what better way to celebrate than by looking for a star whose light began its journey to Earth around the time the Declaration of Independence was signed?

Read about what makes Spica a 1776 star here from Anthony Wood.

4 night sky targets to celebrate America 250

The United States' 250th birthday is almost here, so why not take a break from the fireworks and explore four America-themed wonders hiding in the summer night sky?

Our Skywatching Writer Anthony Wood is our guide here.

Space science has come a long way since July 4, 1776. Here's a look back at the saga

To celebrate 250 years of the U.S. as an independent nation, Space.com takes you on a journey through some common misunderstandings of the universe through the years and the roles American scientists played in clearing up that cosmic confusion.

Read about it here from Astronomy Writer Rob Lea.

America 250: How has telescope technology evolved since the dawn of the U.S.?

The past 250 years of optical telescopes have seen revolutionary discoveries and technology that the telescope's inventor, a seventeenth century spectacle-maker by the name of Hans Lippershey, maybe wouldn't have believed possible.

Space.com Contributing Writer Keith Cooper has the tale here.

In 1776, the moon was a clock, a calendar and a streetlight — and it was 31 feet closer to Earth

After Americans declared independence on July 4, 1776, a waning gibbous moon rose in the night sky. To the people celebrating the birth of a new nation, it would have looked much the same as the moon we see today. But there was one subtle difference: 250 years ago, the moon was about 31 feet (9.4 meters) closer to Earth than it is now.

Contributing Writer Stefanie Waldek explains it all here.

In 1776, the solar system only had 6 planets. Now, it has 8. Does it end there?

Over the past 250 years, the number of "planets" in our solar system has ranged from six to nine — and, briefly, even 11 — depending on what astronomers knew at the time and how they defined a planet. As the United States prepares to celebrate its 250th anniversary, that changing tally offers a unique lens on humanity's evolving understanding of the cosmos since 1776.

Read how our understanding of the planets changed here from Contributing Writer Samantha Mathewson.

'Rocket's Red Glare': How NASA's Artemis 2 moon mission celebrated America's 250th birthday

It doesn't get more America than giant rockets and missions to the moon. That's why NASA painted two giant "America 250" logos on the rocket that launched the Artemis 2 astronauts around the moon earlier this year.

Space.com Spaceflight Writer Josh Dinner has the story on Artemis 2's America 250 livery here. He even took the photo you see above.

How NASA's 'America 250' celebrations are reaching from the sky to the moon

NASA is taking the "America 250" birthday celebration to new heights. "From the earliest days of exploration, to the first steps on the moon and the missions shaping our future, NASA represents the spirit of discovery that defines our nation," the agency wrote on a webpage marking the milestone anniversary.

Read how NASA is celebrating 250 years of America here by Elizabeth Howell.

Stunning new NASA space telescope images reveal the universe in red, white and blue for America 250

NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory has released four stunning images of cosmic wonders, depicted in red, white and blue to coincide with the United States' 250th anniversary on July 4.

Space.com Managing Editor Brett Tingley has the story.

Infant stars celebrate their independence with cosmic fireworks

NASA released this image to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the birth of the U.S. It is a fitting tribute as the protostars break away from the molecular cloud in which they formed to become fully fledged stars in their own right.

Read what cosmic fireworks they reveal here in a story by Rob Lea.

America at 500: Where will we be in space in 2276?

When the U.S. was born, humanity was still seven years away from balloon-borne flight. Where might we be another 250 years from now, should the nation be fortunate enough to survive that long?

Read what the next 250 years might bring for America in space here by Mike Wall.

Those are some great reads, but America isn't the only "Independence Day" celebration going on this year. There is another anniversary that we celebrated this week, but it's not a country, it's a movie.

'Independence Day' at 30: Roland Emmerich & Dean Devlin talk blowing up the White House and crafting a true sci-fi classic (interview)

We often talk about certain works of art ushering in or being ushered in by, but "Independence Day" ("ID4") truly broke the mold for how huge tentpole pictures were marketed three decades ago, something that still reverberates today. So, to celebrate "Independence Day" on its 30th anniversary, we connected with the dynamic creative duo of director Roland Emmerich and screenwriter Dean Devlin ("Universal Soldier," "Stargate," "Godzilla") for a jog down memory lane to remember one of the greatest sci-fi movies in history.

Read about "Independence Day" in our exclusive interview by Contributing Writer Jeff Spy.

'Independence Day' still proves the versatility of the original 'The War of the Worlds'

"Independence Day" definitely isn't "The War of the Worlds". But here's the contradiction. "Independence Day" totally is "The War of the Worlds".

Read exactly why that is here by writer Richard Edwards.

That's going to be a wrap for our Space.com's America 250 celebration!

Thank you all for joining us and we hope you had as much fun reading these features as we had making them. We wish you all the best if you're celebrating the Fourth of July festivities in the United States this Independence Day.

Maybe in 2276, we'll be celebrating from the moon and Mars ... or perhaps somewhere beyond

On Episode 217 of This Week In Space, Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik discuss the progression of American space efforts.

Since 1958, the United States has been part of the spaceflight adventure, and since the mid-1960s has led in just about any category that counts. In this episode, we review which flights launched or landed on July 4, and relive some of our very favorite US space missions of all time!

Download or subscribe to this show at: https://twit.tv/shows/this-week-in-space.

Get episodes ad-free with Club TWiT at https://twit.tv/clubtwit

Space news of the week

• NASA launches rescue mission to save Swift space telescope from burning up in Earth's atmosphere
• The Harvard astronomer dubbed Trump’s chief alien hunter starts by assuming UFOs human-made
• 'Independence Day' at 30: Roland Emmerich & Dean Devlin talk blowing up the White House and crafting a true sci-fi classic (interview)
• Flag Day – Flying High: The Stars and Stripes in Space
• America at 500: Where will we be in space in 2276?

Model Falcon 9!

Finally, did you know you can launch your own SpaceX rocket? Model rocket maker Estes' stunning scale model of a Falcon 9 rocket that you can pick up now. The launchable model is a detailed recreation of the Falcon 9 and retails for $149.99. You can save 10% by using the code IN-COLLECTSPACE at checkout, courtesy of our partners collectSPACE.com.

About This Week In Space

This Week in Space covers the new space age. Every Friday we take a deep dive into a fascinating topic. What's happening with the new race to the moon and other planets? When will SpaceX really send people to Mars?

Join Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik from Space.com as they tackle those questions and more each week on Friday afternoons. You can subscribe today on your favorite podcatcher.

Humanity has likely dreamed of flight since the very beginning, marveling at birds soaring overhead and trying to puzzle out their seemingly magical secret.

We made some halting steps over the centuries — getting kites aloft in ancient China, for example, and drawing up ambitious but unrealized flying machines during the Renaissance — but our boots were still firmly rooted on the ground when the United States of America was born on July 4, 1776.

Things changed just a few years later, however. In November 1783, a hot-air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers carried two men on a 25-minute flight over Paris, beginning our species' exploration of the heavens.

Another 120 years passed before we managed to fly with a powered, heavier-than-air craft, a milestone notched by the Wright brothers in North Carolina on Dec. 17, 1903. Remarkably, it took us less than half that long to make the jump from the sky to the final frontier, which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin did for the first time on April 12, 1961.

Eight years later, Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the moon — a remarkable achievement that was the climactic moment of the Cold War space race between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Over the next three and a half years, five more Apollo missions landed on Earth's nearest neighbor, leaving behind flags, footprints and defunct machinery. Now, more than half a century later, our species is gearing up to go back — but this time, in a much different way.

NASA wants to build a base near the moon's south pole over the next decade or so, an ambitious project the agency is undertaking via its Artemis program. And this is not an end in itself; NASA believes the knowledge gained from establishing such an outpost will help humanity make the next giant leap — to Mars.

The ball is rolling on Artemis, with two successful missions already in the books. Artemis I launched an uncrewed Orion capsule to lunar orbit and back in late 2022, and Artemis II sent four astronauts on a loop around the moon this past April. Next up is Artemis III, which will test docking procedures with one or both of the Artemis program's lunar landers (SpaceX's Starship and Blue Origin's Blue Moon) in Earth orbit in 2027. If all goes well with that flight, Artemis IV will put astronauts down near the lunar south pole, possibly as soon as 2028. (That timeline is far from guaranteed, however, as much development work remains. For example, neither Starship nor Blue Moon has yet reached Earth orbit or been cleared to carry humans.)

This is all happening in the context of a new space race, this time with China. The nation plans to land astronauts on the moon by 2030 and has been ticking boxes that keep this timeline within reach. And China aims to build a base of its own — also near the moon's south pole, which is thought to be rich in water ice — in collaboration with Russia and other partners.

What does all of this mean for the United States? Well, the nation came of age industrially after the Wright brothers' historic flight and has been a leader in aerospace tech and exploration ever since. The U.S. can accomplish amazing things in the final frontier, especially when pushed by a rival, so the years just after its 250th birthday may be quite eventful indeed. Stay tuned!

What did the evening sky look like for Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and their contemporaries on July 4, 1776?

As the United States marks its 250th birthday, many astronomy enthusiasts may be asking exactly that. If you stepped outside around 9 p.m. local time on July 5, 1776, the sky would look much as it does today. Only careful measurements would show that the stars were not in quite the same positions they occupy in 2026.

To understand the sky more fully, it helps to look at how people in 1776 tracked celestial events and what they would have expected to see overhead.

But first, how did people in 1776 keep track of astronomical phenomena? People studied astronomy for practical reasons both in and out of the classroom. It was essential for navigation, surveying, timekeeping, and charting unfamiliar lands. In an age before light pollution, ordinary people were also likely far more familiar with the stars and constellations than most people are today.

Almanacs: timetables of the heavens

In the American colonies of the 17th and 18th centuries, an almanac ranked just behind the Bible in everyday importance. It listed sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset, the times when bright stars reached their highest points in the sky, lunar phases, planetary positions, some astrological lore, and practical information such as road conditions, husbandry tips, and weather forecasts.

By the early 18th century, numerous almanacs were in print. Many survived only a few years, but a bestseller could support its printer well into the following year. Among the most successful was Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanack", published in Philadelphia under the pseudonym Richard Saunders from 1732 to 1758. It became immensely popular, selling more than 10,000 copies annually. Franklin has often been called America's first true Renaissance man — an author, printer, politician, diplomat, inventor, and scientist who counted astronomy among his interests.

Later, yearly "prospectuses of the sundry celestial events" could be derived from the extensive calculations appearing in "The Nautical Almanac", established in 1766 by Dr. Nevil Maskelyne, the fifth Astronomer Royal of England.

The planets visible over the U.S. in 1776

For anyone consulting an almanac for the year 1776, they would find that only one planet could be readily viewed after sundown. Saturn, in the constellation Virgo, passed opposition to the sun on April 7 and during July would be evident in the southwest sky at dusk, shining with a yellowish-white glow and appearing slightly brighter than the bluish first magnitude star Spica, about 7 degrees to its lower left. On the evening of July 22, a waxing crescent moon would appear to form a broad triangle with Saturn and Spica. Of course, Saturn's most notable telescopic feature is its ring system, which at that time was tilted 10 degrees from edge-on with its north face in view.

Toward the end of the month, three other planets would be available about 90 minutes before sunrise, low in the east-northeast amidst the stars of Gemini: Mercury, Jupiter and Mars. Dazzling Venus would be invisible due to its proximity to the sun.

The great lunar eclipse of July 1776

The month's most anticipated astronomical event was the total lunar eclipse of July 30. By the standards of most eclipses, it was exceptional: totality would last an unusually long 1 hour 35 minutes. Unfortunately for observers in Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and many other locations, much of the spectacle unfolded before moonrise. Mid-totality was predicted for "7:01 o'clock in the evening," before the moon rose, and the moon would begin emerging from Earth's shadow at 7:49 p.m., when it was positioned just above the east-southeast horizon. It would "quit the shadow completely" at 8:48 p.m.

The eclipse came just 26 days after the Declaration of Independence was unanimously adopted by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. It was widely observed and discussed in journals of the era and later became part of Revolutionary War Lore. In a time of profound uncertainty, early Americans watched it closely despite poor viewing conditions. Diarists and observers, including hymn writer John Newton and militia officers, often treated the event as an omen reflecting the gravity of the Revolution. The Declaration of Independence was engrossed on parchment, and delegates began signing it on Aug. 2, 1776, only three days after the eclipse.

Beyond the month's most dramatic event lies a subtler question: whether the background stars themselves would have looked meaningfully different from the way they appear today.

Did the stars look different 250 years ago?

Besides rotating and revolving, Earth has an oscillating motion like that of a spinning top due chiefly to the pull of the moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. Each oscillation takes about 26,000 years. Thus, the North Pole traces a circle in the sky, pointing to different stars as it moves in its circuit.

Consequently, Polaris wasn't as good a pole star in 1776, being 1.88 degrees from the celestial pole compared to 0.63 degrees today. Put another way: the gap between the celestial pole and Polaris measured nearly four moon-widths in 1776 compared to just over one-width today.

What about proper motion? Have any stars shifted noticeably in 250 years? The only one would be the brilliant orange star Arcturus in Boötes, which has the largest proper motion of any 1st-magnitude star, but since 1776 has drifted only about 0.13 degrees (equal to about one-quarter of a moon diameter) with respect to its fainter neighbors.

The weather on America's first Independence Day

One final detail adds historical texture: the weather in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, was pleasant and mild, with clear morning skies giving way to increasing clouds by afternoon. Weather journals kept by Thomas Jefferson and local observer Phineas Pemberton record a high of 76° F. Those later clouds, however, might have obscured much of the sky on that first night of Independence.

Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York's Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for Natural History magazine, Sky and Telescope, The Old Farmer's Almanac and other publications.

"Independence Day" definitely isn't "The War of the Worlds". The characters are all new, the alien invaders don't come from Mars, and HG Wells sure as hell didn't write about spaceships engaging in "Star Wars"-esque dogfights over Victorian England.

But here's the contradiction. "Independence Day" totally is "The War of the Worlds". It's about Earth being hopelessly outgunned by aliens from outer space and a human resistance fighting back against impossible odds. It also has, more or less, the same ending — the extra-terrestrials' demise by computer virus is a cunning update of the original book's microbial final twist.

Director Roland Emmerich's genius, however, was reinventing Wells' sci-fi classic for the blockbuster age. His aliens had Hollywood in their blood, their entire plan built around delivering the perfect money shot. Let's be honest, there has to be a more practical way of flattening entire cities than blasting famous landmarks with a Death Star-scale super-lasers, but it wouldn't have been quite so popcorn- — or movie poster- — friendly.

Besides, nobody was going to believe that humanity's nemesis hailed from Mars after the Viking landers had sent back photos of a barren, dead world. Reinventing the aliens' origin story — as nomadic, resource-hungry scavengers — just made sense in the cynical '90s.

"The War of the Worlds" is cut from the same cloth as fellow genre pioneers "Frankenstein" and "Dracula" (the latter was, coincidentally, originally published the same year as Wells' alien invasion classic). Each story is so versatile that it can be reimagined again and again to reflect the hopes and fears of any time period. You can change a few names here and there — as "Nosferatu" famously did with Bram Stoker's vampire page-turner — but these plotlines have become archetypes within our collective consciousness.

More than a century later, we still can't get enough. They're also — to use that hoary old sci-fi/fantasy cliché — a brilliant way of pointing a mirror back at the time they were made.

"The War of the Worlds" was less than 40 years old (and still in copyright) when a 20-something Orson Welles turned it into a radio drama in 1938. The cinematic immortality of "Citizen Kane" was still three years away when the Hollywood wunderkind went looking for a story to adapt as a fake newscast for Halloween.

Writer Howard Koch shifted the action from 19th-century London to contemporary New Jersey (coincidentally, also the location of Steven Spielberg's 2005 "War of the Worlds"), and the resulting broadcast became one of the most famous — and definitely most infamous — radio dramas in history. Indeed, it was so far ahead of its time that "Ghostwatch", the BBC's spooky primetime mockumentary, got itself into trouble for a similar, knowingly 'fake news' stunt over half a century later.

Welles and co designed the adaptation to sound like a news bulletin — complete with weather reports and 'expert' analysis — as the aliens made their move on New York. And even though subsequent reports about the mass panic the broadcast generated in the real world were almost definitely exaggerated, some listeners who came to the show late really did believe that it was time to start welcoming their Martian overlords.

Welles' "War of the Worlds" was perfectly timed to capitalize on fears about the escalating threat of war in Europe. But the first blockbuster movie adaptation arrived in a very different political climate, when the Cold War was driving fears about the rise of communism and the threat of nuclear war.

When the Martians attack in George Pal's 1953 movie, the US army — unsurprisingly — drop an atomic bomb on their invasion fleet, but they're left unscathed thanks to their powerful forcefields. A powerful statement about the pointlessness of nuclear war, or simply an excuse to keep the story's common cold conclusion intact?

The movie is probably more important, however, as a precursor of the sci-fi blockbusters that would follow. Filmed in Technicolor, its visual effects were truly groundbreaking, as the movie imagined alien terrors that, before then, had only been possible on the page or on radio.

Anyone who's read the original book will note that Pal's floating Martian war machines don't quite match Wells' tripods, though the movie does subtly point out that — despite appearances — they're actually walking on invisible forcefield legs. Yes, really…

Wells' story got an unlikely new lease of life in the late 1970s when an American composer made a concept album that found its way into millions of record collections in the UK.

The snappily titled "Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of the War of the Worlds" reimagined the alien invasion as a prog rock opus, with Richard Burton as the journalist recounting the story, and '70s music stars Justin Hayward, David Essex, Phil Lynott (Thin Lizzy) and Julie Covington (who'd had a number one with "Don't Cry for Me Argentina") popping up on the soundtrack. Nearly 50 years later, Wayne is still touring his masterwork, finding new stage effects and guest stars (Liam Neeson has replaced Burton in later versions) to bring the invasion to life.

But even though the names were changed, "Independence Day" may just be the "War of the Worlds" that's had the biggest cultural impact of all. It was everywhere in 1996, with its superlative marketing campaign propelling it to the top of that year's box office chart. It was 1996's "Jurassic Park", the sci-fi epic that everybody went to see.

It arguably changed the rules of engagement for subsequent adaptations of Wells' novel, as any set-pieces featuring flying saucers flattening cities would now be judged against Emmerich's highly lucrative carnage. Spielberg's "War of the Worlds", released nearly a decade later, wisely took a very different route, keeping Wells' tripods and noxious red weed, and loading the invasion with powerful post-9/11 subtext.

In 2019, the BBC went down a path it had with many classic novels and adapted "The War of the Worlds" as a three-part period piece. The same year, another, longer-running TV version focused on the story of survivors after an alien apocalypse that had wiped out most of the Earth's population.

And then, in 2025, Wells' text finally met its match in the universally panned version that pitted a desk-bound Ice Cube against invaders who want us for our data. This was a "War of the Worlds" for the digital age, built on sledgehammer-subtle allegories for privacy and surveillance.

It wasn't the sci-fi classic's finest hour, but it did at least continue to prove the remarkable malleability of a 129-year-old novel. Like "Independence Day," it wasn't Wells' "War of the Worlds", but it also was, all at the same time.

"Independence Day" is on Disney+ in the US and UK.

I used to think Uranus was the sort of planet you graduated into. Saturn and its rings first, obviously. Jupiter and its cloud bands soon after that. Venus, if it's shrinking to a crescent (which it soon will be), and, of course, Mars and its ice caps. But Uranus? The seventh planet feels like something reserved for people with huge telescopes, expensive eyepieces and incredibly lucky atmospheric seeing. It may be considered an ice giant planet, but it's almost four times farther from the sun than Jupiter and twice as far as Saturn — and it's a lot smaller than both. Uranus didn't figure in my plans.

And yet on a frosty evening in September, a few years ago, I finally got to see it as a blue-green dot nearly 1.8 billion miles away. It was through a large Dobsonian telescope belonging to one very generous member of the Salt Lake Astronomical Society, outside the visitor center at Bryce Canyon National Park, which hosts popular astronomy and night-sky programs. Uranus shone dimly, but I could easily make out its color by averting my eyes (looking slightly to the side of the planet rather than directly at it). That way, the human eye's light-sensitive peripheral cells can catch brightness — it's a technique that's worth learning for all kinds of telescopic astronomy. Even then, Uranus looked like a faint, motionless star rather than a glowing planet. It was no Saturn.

What surprised me wasn't finally seeing Uranus — that was down to a massive telescope. It was how suddenly my perception changed once my eye locked onto it. After seeing it up close (ish), I wanted to know exactly where Uranus was in the night sky. Uranus is technically visible to the naked eye, but it is very challenging to see. It shines at 5.7 magnitude — right at the absolute limit of human visibility, but in Bryce Canyon's dark moonless skies, it was definitely there. Was it a satisfying sight? Not especially — but I could not unsee it. That transition — from looking casually to carefully observing, first with powerful optics and then navigating with the naked eye — is what observational astronomy is all about. Uranus now always figures in my plans, but typically only when I have access to a very large telescope.

Finally seeing Uranus is a milestone. Most people remember their first view of Saturn because its rings impress immediately. But many people remember Uranus because they had to work for it. It's a planet you can discover for yourself — and you can do it this week.

What's happening and when to look

I tend to forget all about Uranus unless it's involved in a conjunction — and that's exactly what's happening. Conjunctions involving Uranus tend to occur a couple of times each year, typically as one of the fast-moving, closer planets — such as Venus and Mars — appear next to it. Venus was close to Uranus back in April, and on July 4, it's the turn of Mars. A conjunction between Mars and Uranus happens about every two years as the red planet surges past on its far quicker journey around the sun (687 Earth days versus the 84 years it takes Uranus).

This won't be the most convenient conjunction to observe, but they'll get to within about 11 arc minutes of each other — extremely close! From the northern hemisphere, the planets will be low on the eastern horizon in the early morning hours before astronomical dawn. The best time to be up and looking east will be about 3:45 a.m. local time. The observing window is only about 45 minutes before dawn, making it harder to find with every passing minute.

How and when I'm watching it

Find Mars, find Uranus. That's the entire point of using a close conjunction to see the seventh planet. Mars will serve as a guidepost and be easy to see. It will shine at 1.3 magnitude below the sparkling Pleiades open cluster. You won't be able to miss it in a clear sky. All you have to do is look slightly above Mars for Uranus — first with the naked eye, then with any pair of binoculars (I'll be using 10x50 binoculars). The conjunction will be close enough to fit comfortably in binoculars and to look beautiful in a small telescope, if you have one.

Normally, locating Uranus involves hopping through fairly anonymous star fields while constantly second-guessing whether you are looking at a star or the planet itself. Here, Mars does the navigation for you. Your reward will be the sight of a tiny pale point with a subtle blue-green tint. The satisfaction comes less from appearance and more from seeing something so distant directly with your own eyes.

There's also something fitting about this conjunction falling on July 4 during the 250th anniversary year in the U.S. Uranus takes 84 years to orbit the sun, meaning it has completed almost exactly three orbits since the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. The planet itself was not discovered until 1781, when William Herschel identified it while searching the sky systematically rather than casually. It's a reminder that back in 1776, only six planets were known about. Now we're on a hunt for a ninth planet (sorry, Pluto).

Stargazer's corner: July 3-9, 2026

July opens with a slowly darkening sky after the long twilight of late June. Earth reaches aphelion on July 6, its farthest point from the sun (the seasons are driven by Earth's tilted axis, not its distance from the sun). So the sun's disk will be at its smallest in the sky, one factor contributing to the total solar eclipse on Aug. 12. Meanwhile, the very early hours of July 7 and 8 will see a close conjunction of a last quarter moon and Saturn in the east, kicking off relatively moonless conditions for the following 10 nights or so.

Asterism of the week: Summer Triangle

By early July, the Summer Triangle dominates the sky after dark. Formed by Vega, high overhead, Deneb to the northeast and Altair lower in the south, it creates a vast, unmistakable pattern that defines the season. It's actually not a constellation, but an asterism — a popular shape in the sky, like the Big Dipper — and its scale is what makes it so useful. Once you've got it nailed, it becomes a framework for the entire sky, helping you orient yourself instantly all season long. It also traces the path of the Milky Way, which runs straight through it, adding an extra sight if you're somewhere not blighted by light pollution.

For a franchise where the main hook is time travel, "Terminator" probably wishes it could take us back in time… or just borrow the neuralyzer from "Men in Black" to wipe everybody's mind after everything post-1991. Now, as "Terminator 2: Judgment Day" turns 35 this month, we think it's time to call it: Terminator shouldn't be back.

The decline of the "Terminator" franchise might be one of the greatest falls from grace ever seen in cinema. The first two movies established themselves as genre classics, combining heart-stopping action with futuristic sci-fi that explored the threat of AI bringing about an apocalypse.

No one could get enough of the concept, with several clones such as Jean-Claude Van Damme's "Universal Soldier" and Mario Van Peebles' "Solo" copying James Cameron's homework and trying to ride its coattails. In the end, none of them were fit to lick the boots of Arnold Schwarzenegger's T-800. And as it turns out, neither were any of the subsequent Terminator sequels that followed.

1991's "Terminator 2: Judgment Day" is one of the best sequels of all time, but it also wraps up the story perfectly in retrospect. It nearly ended there, too, as the franchise sat in limbo for the next decade, buried in legal battles and rights disputes.

Cameron had plans for a third film, but he moved on to create "Avatar", leaving "Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines" to blast into theatres in 2003 without him. Is it an awful film? No, but it fails to do or say anything new. It's "a rusted robot compared to the first two films", as a fan referred to it in a Rotten Tomatoes review.

A TV series titled "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles" debuted in 2008. It ignores the events of the last movie, as Sarah Connor (Lena Headey) and her son, John (Thomas Dekker), continue to do everything in their power to stop the creation of Skynet. An interesting and alternate continuation of the story, but no one really watched the show, resulting in a quick pull of the plug after two seasons.

From there, the franchise shot forward into the future in 2009's "Terminator Salvation". Despite Christian Bale's spirited performance as John Connor, including an infamous leaked behind-the-scenes rant, there's no salvation to be found here – only the damnation of a soulless story and deliberate nostalgia-bait. And the less said about 2015's reboot-but-not-a-reboot "Terminator Genisys", the better.

Then, 2019's "Terminator: Dark Fate" arrived. Out of all the sequels, this is likely the best of the lot, as it attempts to inject fresh blood into the franchise, but it's still hamstrung by hanging onto the narrative threads of the past. The decision to kill John Connor is daft to the nth degree, effectively nullifying the entire point of the series. But the worst part about "Terminator: Dark Fate" wasn't the middling reviews or online hullabaloo about John; it was how it tanked at the box office. It's the lowest-performing "Terminator" sequel – all but killing the chances of more movies for at least the immediate future.

So, what did the franchise do? It pivoted. The murder bots headed back to the comics and video game arena, while an anime show, "Terminator Zero" arrived on streaming in 2024. Maybe the audience changed, so the franchise needed to change along with it? Well, about that…

In February 2026, news broke that Netflix had cancelled "Terminator Zero". It's a cruel move, especially since the Mattson Tomlin-created show attempted to do something different by telling a Terminator story that isn't about John Connor.

It's set in Japan and follows Malcolm Lee (voiced by André Holland), who attempts to stop the rise of Skynet by creating his own AI named Kokoro. The series isn't afraid of having tough discussions about humanity and if we're fated to destroy ourselves, no matter how many times someone tries to prevent it by changing the course of history. Should we even be saved from ourselves?

"Terminator Zero" proves to be a breath of fresh air, keeping the John Connor chronicles out of the picture and introducing new characters to propel the action forward. It's the shot in the arm that the franchise desperately needed; the core themes of Cameron's two movies are still in check, but the additional layers help to evolve and widen the landscape of the story. This is something the fandom had been calling out for many times before in the years prior. Yet, when originality finally arrived in the form of "Terminator Zero", the amount of eyeballs on the series didn't justify Netflix's continued investment in it.

If it wasn't clear before, it is now. The return of both Schwarzenegger and Linda Hamilton didn't make an iota of a difference in "Terminator: Dark Fate", while the decision to go in a bold new direction with the anime series hardly made a splash. The general public has lost interest in "Terminator" – and there's no coming back from it. No amount of time-traveling expeditions to reboot or create alternate timelines can save it now, because it's been done to the point of overkill.

It's not just that the movies failed to change with the times, though… we've changed. The "Terminator" movies are a warning about the dangers of technology and AI. The problem with watching it now is that it doesn't feel like fiction anymore. As the irresponsible use of AI escalates and an OpenAI smart model has already refused to follow instructions, Cameron's nightmare is turning into reality. Will ChatGPT be building humanoid robots to hunt us down in 50 years time? Probably not. Reality tends to offer less stylish and cinematic ends for its protagonists.

In August 2025, Cameron admitted that he's struggling to write a new "Terminator" film for this very reason. "I'm tasked with writing a new 'Terminator' story," he said. "I've been unable to get started on that very far because I don't know what to say that won't be overtaken by real events. We are living in a science fiction age right now.”

Despite this, Cameron confirmed that he's working on a new Terminator script — this time sans Schwarzenegger — in a December 2025 interview with The Hollywood Reporter. "It's time for a new generation of characters," said Cameron. "There needs to be a broader interpretation of Terminator and the idea of a time war and super intelligence. I want to do new stuff that people aren't imagining".

And so we're destined to do this dance once more. Kyle Reese warned us as much in the original. "It absolutely will not stop... ever, until you are dead!" We thought he was talking about the T-800, but maybe what he was really warning us about was the dark fate of this iconic movie franchise.

The harsh truth is that every good story needs to know when to end. The obsession with turning everything into a franchise and extending it until it's limping along and slack-jawed needs to be curbed. Not everything needs to go on for all eternity. Look at "Back to the Future" as a prime example; despite repeated calls for "Back to the Future Part IV", Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale have rejected it. Consequently, the legacy of "Back to the Future" seems far more secure than "Terminator's" in the modern era, because they know the story's done.

Schwarzenegger's T-800 famously said, "I'll be back," and he kept his promise for over three decades. This time, though, it's time for him to stay gone.

BOULDER, Colorado - Humans have been exploring outer space since April 1961 with the pioneering flight of Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.

Today, several nations are making new plans to launch human beings back to the moon, then onward to Mars and perhaps beyond. But will that pursuit be short-circuited by the fast-paced merger of artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced humanoid robots?

That proposition was broached during a Humans to Titan Summit, held here June 11-12, a first-time event attended by specialists seeking to send astronauts to Titan, Saturn's largest moon. It is an attractive, attention-getting place in space. Titan comes with a thick atmosphere and is a distinctive world of clouds, rain, rivers, lakes and seas of liquid hydrocarbons like methane and ethane. But will humans ever set foot on Titan, or will AI-powered advanced robots make the voyage instead?

Exciting and futile

The Humans to Titan Summit was both exciting and futile, said Pascal Lee, chairman of the Mars Institute and a planetary scientist at the SETI Institute. He is also director of the NASA Haughton-Mars Project at NASA Ames Research Center.

"The futile part comes from the fact that humans going to Titan is a longer-term goal in an age where technology is evolving so quickly," Lee told Space.com. "But it has to be done and it's worth doing as it gives us some sense of direction."

Lee's central position is that a human trek to Titan would be decades in the future. No surprise there.

"Meanwhile there's a revolution that's taking place on Earth," he said, the emergence of android robots imbued with AI, innovations that are brewing and maturing relatively quickly.

Artificial super intelligence

"Everyone is aspiring to achieve artificial 'general' intelligence. However, we're nearing the moment where AI is no longer narrow and focused on specific tasks to a point where it essentially matches human intelligence.

"Artificial 'super intelligence,'" said Lee, "is actually having the complexity and subtleties of human thinking," he said.

Whether such an android would have a soul or be self-aware, Lee said that's more speculative. "But it certainly can get to the point where it becomes a very objective observer and scientist."

Doesn't take a visionary

"Android robots have exceeded in many ways the performance of many humans," said Lee. "They can run, jump, do acrobatics, and with AI it doesn't take a visionary to see that you essentially get an artificial human," he said.

A multi-tasking android robot doesn't need to be fed, nor breathe or sleep, and doesn't produce its own waste, Lee said. "It has all the usefulness of a human being and none of the risks and shortcomings, along with the cost of sending humans. It automatically becomes your best exploration system," he said, "and behaves like a biological human, but minus the biology. That's our future in space."

In the meantime, robotics is making strides.

So much so that having a robot look like a human is no longer strictly science fiction. In terms of the physical performance of robots, Lee senses "the race is on" between China and the United States.

Training ground

In fact, Lee points to a humanoid robot offered by China's UBTech Robotics, the Walker S2. It can change its own depleted battery, swapping it out with a fresh, fully-charged battery.

That skill mimics mortality, Lee said, with the Chinese firm calling it another step toward fully autonomous machines capable of working 24/7.

Noting the NASA Haughton-Mars Project — an analog field research effort situated on Devon Island in the Arctic — Lee said that site could be used as a training ground for how humans and android robots can team up together.

"My hope is that on Devon Island we could start working with AI and 'able-to-learn' android robots. You could train an android robot to be a field assistant," said Lee.

Circling back to Titan, Lee envisions that once an android-installed infrastructure on that distant Saturnian moon is set up, humans could make an official visit to the facility, completely run by robots.

"I think, ultimately, we think of Titan as the next big leap beyond Mars. But to me Titan is even more interesting as the last leap before interstellar travel," Lee concluded.

Happy 30th birthday to "Independence Day," the sci-fi mega blockbuster that made Will Smith an instant Hollywood star, crushed the box office by becoming the fastest film to reach $100 million, and obliterated Washington, D.C, all in one fell swoop of pure popcorn movie entertainment.

We often talk about certain works of art ushering in or being ushered in by, but "Independence Day" ("ID4") truly broke the mold for how huge tentpole pictures were marketed three decades ago, something that still reverberates today. Is there any bigger money shot than a city-sized flying saucer poised over the White House delivering a lethal laser blast of searing coherent light?

So, to celebrate "Independence Day" on its 30th anniversary, we connected with the dynamic creative duo of director Roland Emmerich and screenwriter Dean Devlin ("Universal Soldier," "Stargate," "Godzilla") for a jog down memory lane to remember one of the greatest sci-fi movies in history.

"We’d just done 'Stargate', and it was this bizarre situation where MGM had no movies to release in the month of October, so they decided to release our film," Devlin tells Space. "Roland and I had a lot of frustrations in the process of the film marketing. So we were in a fortunate position when 'Independence Day's' script came out, we had nine studios bidding on it. We had a lot of leverage, and one of the things we said was that we want to have real control over the marketing. Roland had this idea of a trailer where in it you see the White House blow up."

Its first teaser on Super Bowl Sunday in January of 1996 was a potent 30-second shot across Hollywood’s bow to announce itself to the world. Rarely had marketing campaigns started six months early, something that’s become commonplace in the digital age. But back in 1996, when Bill Clinton was president, Michael Jordan's Chicago Bulls were flying high, and the Summer Olympic Games were about to ignite in Atlanta, it was a bold move that paid off.

"I'll never forget, after we made the deal, we had this big meeting with the studio, and we got in a room, and they said to Roland and I, 'Well, you know we can't really show the White House blowing up in a trailer with what happened recently with this terrorist attack on the Federal Building. It could cause a problem.' I said, 'Yeah, but this is aliens, it's not terrorists.' Then Roland goes, 'So wait, you're telling me that if we do this, it will cause an enormous amount of controversy and everybody will talk about our movie. And that’s wrong why?'"

Released by 20th Century Fox on July 3, 1996, "ID4" and its old-fashioned, flag-waving patriotic flair exploded into theaters with an epic alien invasion tale that was irresistible.

Yes, kids, audiences really did wait in long lines snaking around the block to see their favorite films when they opened. This sci-fi extravaganza was the perfect summertime escape that was appropriately launched over the festive Fourth of July week. The advertising sizzle paid off, and the film became the top-grossing of the year, raking in a whopping $817.4 million worldwide.

Emmerich recalls that the studio secretly tested "ID4" with and without the White House explosion, and there was no more discussion, leaving it as one of the highest-testing teaser trailers ever.

Starring Bill Pullman, Will Smith, Jeff Goldblum, Viveca Fox, Judd Hirsch, Margaret Colin, Brent Spiner, and Randy Quaid, it showcased terrifying extraterrestrial designs by Patrick Tatopoulos, a stirring score from David Arnold, enveloping soundscapes, and some of the best miniatures and model work ever captured on screen.

It's a spirited throwback to ‘50s-era science fiction thrillers like "The War of the Worlds" or "Earth vs. the Flying Saucers" and even won a well-deserved Academy Award for Volker Engel and his ace VFX team.

"The art of film has been lost," Emmerich notes. "When you look at 'Project Hail Mary' for example. It's meandering, and you don’t really know why this was $250 million. Because it's one actor and a stone puppet."So this is what got lost. That films got made for a price with great visual effects, and we had great visual effects and won an Oscar."

ID4's cast seems star-studded in hindsight, but Emmerich and his team took some big risks that earned them the ire of the studio.

"At that point, Will Smith was nobody, and we had to really fight for him," explains Emmerich. "The same thing with Jeff Goldblum. Nobody wanted to see him. At the very beginning, there was this idea of using up-and-coming stars and revisiting older stars, and they [the studio] didn’t like that. We had to fight for them. And it inspired a different marketing campaign. Like with helicopters flying around with 'The world ends July 4th.'"

When "Independence Day" opened wide in 2,977 venues, fans furiously flocked to theaters and multiplexes around the country, creating a once-in-a-decade demand for available seats. That week, Roland Emmerich was vacationing in sunny Puerto Vallarta, as far away from the rollout as possible.

"So I'm in a car with a bunch of people while he's in Puerto Vallarta," Devlin recalls. "And we’re videotaping for Roland to see the crowds at the theaters. We’re in Westwood, and the line goes for three blocks. We get to the front of the line, and the number three person in line was director Jon Turteltaub, whose movie ["Phenomenon"] was opening on the same day. I jumped out of the car and said, 'Jon, your movie is opening across the street. Why are you in the line for this one?' And he said, 'This is the one I want to see.' I thought at that moment that yeah, this is a cultural event."

Emmerich and Devlin admit to feeling a hint of this intense response a bit earlier during the final ID4 test screening in Las Vegas.

"Remember, this was before digital prints and digital projectors," says Devlin. "So the audience recruited for the test was not told what movie they get to watch. All they know is it's science fiction. The place was packed, and Roland and I were in the back. The little opening thing comes on and [...] it says 'Independence Day' and the place went insane. They were cheering and freaking out. Roland and I were looking at each other like, 'Oh my god, this is great.'

"In those days, you could still have a head of a studio roll the dice on a project he believes in," reminisces Devlin. "Tom Jacobson was the head of the studio at the time, and he had two lieutenants underneath him. One loved the script, and the other hated the script and didn't want to do it. He read it himself and said, 'No, we're going to make this film.'

"That can’t happen today," laments Devlin. "Now you've got these greenlight committees and algorithms that decide what gets made. And I think that's part of what pollutes the ability to do something that’s original and out of the box."

Few Hollywood partnerships in the ‘90s were as formidable as this prolific pair, and "ID4" might have been the zenith of their long collaboration and friendship.

"This was a really true partnership," Emmerich notes. "Everything that the success brought is 50-50. We wrote a script together, which was f***ing fantastic. Not much got changed. Only a little bit on the Randy Quaid character."

"We were under pressure because I learned that Warner Bros. was already in production of a Tim Burton movie called 'Mars Attacks.' I realized we have to do this very fast and we have to go write somewhere where we’re not disturbed," recalls Emmerich.

The White House wasn't the only casualty caught in ID4's wake, though, as another renowned filmmaker's sci-fi flick took a beating at the box office.

"After three or four weeks, we gave the script to our agent, and he said, 'Oh my god, this is the most commercial thing I've seen in years.' And that's how the auction came along. He sent it out on Wednesday, and they all had to cancel their lunches. We called this thing 'Independence Day' because that's where we wanted to have it, six weeks before 'Mars Attacks' was to come out."

"Larry Franco was producing 'Mars Attacks', and he said, 'You should have seen Tim's face.' He was just destroyed because he had such high hopes with this film because it was so quirky and cool. And it's actually a really good film, but it was destroyed by 'Independence Day.'"

As America salutes its 250th anniversary, relive the counterattack once more and see for yourselves just how well "Independence Day" holds up after 30 years!

A U.S. Space Force mission pitting two satellites against each other has been deemed a success, completing its first tactical intercept of an orbital target.

The news comes less than two weeks after Rocket Lab broke a spaceflight readiness record, launching the company's Pioneer-class Puma satellite aboard an Electron rocket on June 19, delivering the second spacecraft of the Space Force's Victus Haze mission just 16 hours and 42 minutes after receiving notice. The mission's first satellite, True Anomaly's JACKAL-0004 vehicle, was launched to orbit on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket in May, where it awaited the yet-unannounced launch of its counterpart.

Once Puma reached space as well, the vehicles were tasked with rapid acquisition, rendezvousing and assessment operations to simulate the interception and characterization of potential adversary spacecraft. Space Force's Space Systems Command put a 72-hour deadline for the orbital sortie's successful completion, which wrapped up 11 hours ahead of schedule, according to a True Anomaly statement.

It's Space Force's second Tactically Responsive Space (TacRS) mission. The first, Victus Nox, was launched by Firefly Aerospace in September 2023, and was focused on space domain awareness capabilities. The tactical engagement of two spacecraft in orbit on Victus Haze is a brand-new accomplishment for the Space Force, which continues to fortify its orbital posture against a rising threat of potential "non-compliant satellites," according to a Rocket Lab statement.

During its mission to hunt down Puma, Jackal was able to demonstrate several critical capabilities, including proximity operations and satellite image identification. "Jackal performed exactly as designed, demonstrating precise propulsion burns and nominal ingress, successful closed-loop tracking, precision pointing, imaging and characterization of the target before egressing to its base orbit," the True Anomaly statement said.

According to the Space Force, the two spacecraft participated in several space domain awareness threat-response scenarios and "dynamic engagements with the other."

“Victus Haze is primed to further demonstrate our readiness to lean on our commercial partners to deny, disrupt, and counter any adversarial advantage — no matter where they try to operate in space,” acting Space Force portfolio acquisition executive Col. Bryon McClain said in the Space Force statement.

Once mission operations began, True Anomaly handed control of Jackal over to the company's "space superiority software," Mosaic, which executed planning of the sortie with Puma. Puma's vehicle platform, Pioneer, was designed, launched and operated by Rocket Lab.

"Victus Haze proves that responsive launch and responsive characterization are a single capability. Acquire a new object within hours, close the geometry, and deliver the imagery. The next step is cadence: faster, more often, and across more orbits," True Anomaly's press release said.

Aside from fireworks, what better way to celebrate 250 years of independence than by launching your own model rocket into the sky? The limited edition Estes Liberty Star rocket is the perfect model for the job, decked out with a blue and red styling and featuring beginner friendly assembly for an easy setup.

You can get the Estes Liberty Star America 250th Celebration model rocket for $38.84 on Amazon

Estes features a lot in our model rocket guide, with six of their models included. They are the biggest name in model rockets and have the reptuation to back it up. This special edition rocket was designed for the once-in-a-lifetime milestone of 250 years of American independence. For something that is a bit different from a fireworks show, launch this proud rocket and watch it return to solid ground this Independence Day.

• We've got you covered with reviews and rankings of the best telescopes, binoculars, star projectors, cameras, drones, Lego, streaming and more.

It's an extra-special Independence Day this year, celebrating 250 years of America, and I'm sure that celebrations will be lasting longer than July 4. The Estes Liberty Star is a limited edition model rocket styled in red, white and blue with a projected altitude of 920 feet. It makes a great commemorative decoration of this special anniversary or it might make an exciting first flight for a loved one and kick off a lifelong hobby of model rocketry. If you don't have a launch setup already, we would recommending grabbing an Estes Porta-Pad II and an Estes 3/16-inch Maxi launch rod, along with a C11-5 or D12-5 model rocket engine from a hobby store. Asides from the extra purchases, this is an extremely beginner friendly model rocket, with a setup time under 10 minutes.

Estes is a household name in model rocket enthusiast circles and they helped revolutionise the entire industry in the 1950s with the National Association of Rocketry (NAR). Before Estes and the NAR, teenagers were making their own fuel for model rockets and the lack of regulation often led to severe injuries. Independence Day is synonymous with pyrotechnics but all kinds of explosive material can be life-threatening, so rest assured you are getting a patriotic rocket from a safety pioneer. That being said, extreme caution should always be followed when operating a model rocket with an engine and launch pad, as apart from self-injury, there is also a high risk of fire, so make sure you launch in a wide open area and check local fire laws.

Key features: Red, white and blue styling, beginner skill level, pre-molded plastic fins for easy setup, 15-inch (38 cm) recovery parachute, maximum altitude of 920 feet (280 m), 3.5 oz (99.2 g) weight.

Product launched: June 2026

Price history: This product was launched at $38.84 and has not seen any price fluctuations.

Price comparison: Amazon: $38.84 | Walmart: $38.84

Reviews consensus: We haven't reviewed any Estes rockets but they have a great reputation in the model rocket community and our editor-in-chief Tariq Malik has used a few models and loves them.

✅ Buy it if: You want to celebrate or commemorate the 250th anniversary of Independence Day with a limited edition red, white and blue rocket.

❌ Don't buy it if: You don't have access to a large open area or you live in a restricted area. Local laws and fire codes may totally ban model rocketry in your area.

Check out our other guides to the best telescopes, binoculars, cameras, star projectors, drones, lego and much more.

On July 4, the United States of America celebrates its 250th birthday, marking the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence and becoming a sovereign nation.

Today, this relatively young country leads the way in our understanding of the universe. It's where many major players in space science, like NASA, the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Northwestern University, to name just a few.

And to celebrate 250 years of the U.S. as an independent nation, Space.com takes you on a journey through some common misunderstandings of the universe through the years and the roles American scientists played in clearing up that cosmic confusion.

By 1776, Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion had been around for about 89 years since the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) in 1687. Five of the solar system planets had been discovered by the Ancient Greeks long before the birth of the U.S. Also, after a long struggle and many attempts to stifle this knowledge, humans were made aware that the Earth orbits the sun rather than the other way around, with the final nail in this coffin of misunderstanding laid by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 and Galileo Galilei in 1610, receiving an extra hammer blow from Newton in 1687.

Galileo had also delivered us to the understanding that not only was Earth's place in the solar system unique, but it wasn't even the only planet to possess moons, with the moons of Jupiter, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto discovered in 1610.

Clearly, by the time the U.S. was born we were already beginning to understand the universe and our place within it, but some major misunderstandings still persisted. One of the largest of these surrounded the nature of the sun itself.

The sun as a burning lump of coal

America was formed during the "steam age," a period of industrialization that lasted from 1770 to 1914. This revolution was driven by coal, powering locomotives, ships, and factories, changing the shape of industry, transportation, and manufacturing. At this time, coal was the densest and most powerful fuel source known to humanity, so it is perhaps little wonder that many early scientists theorized the sun was actually a tremendously massive lump of burning coal.

Then, one of the oldest and most prominent scientific periodicals in the world, the U.S.-based Scientific American, wrote a 1863 article that first began the pushback against the sun as a burning lump of coal.

"If the sun were composed of coal, it would last at the present rate only 5,000 years. The sun, in all probability, is not a burning, but an incandescent, body. Its light is rather that of a glowing molten metal than that of a burning furnace. But it is impossible that the sun should constantly be giving out heat, without either losing heat or being supplied with new fuel," the Scientific American article stated. "Assuming that the heat of the sun has been kept up by meteoric bodies falling into it, it is possible from the mass of the solar system to determine approximately the period during which the sun has shone. The limits lie between 100 millions and 400 millions of years."

Though this estimate was still miles out, we now understand that the sun is around 4.6 billion years old; this development came at a time of a geological revolution that was uncovering evidence that our planet was much older than theological estimates of just a few thousand years.

Around 57 years later in 1920, British scientist Arthur Eddington first suggested stars like the sun are actually powered by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium. The idea was published by Eddington in his 1926 book, "The Internal Constitution of the Stars." Twelve years after this, nuclear physicist Hans Bethe formulated the first explanation of this nuclear fusion process, detailing the proton-proton chain reaction and the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle.

The idea of the sun as a burning lump of coal finally burnt out 162 years after the formation of the U.S., a chain reaction kick-started by an American publication.

Ether or…?

During the infancy of the U.S. in the 1800s, scientists understood that light is a wave. Applying this to what they knew of other waves, it was logical to presume that light also needed a medium through which it could propagate. This medium would have to be ubiquitous and possess some unique properties to allow light to propagate through it at the speed of light.

Thus, it was proposed that space was filled with a medium called the luminiferous ether, with luminiferous meaning "light-bearing." The fact that this would have to be an invisible and infinite material that doesn't interact with physical objects made the existence of the luminiferous ether highly controversial.

We now know this medium doesn't exist, and that is thanks to two American physicists, Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley, who in 1887 delivered the most important null result in the history of science: disproving the existence of the luminiferous ether.

Should the luminiferous ether exist, then scientists reasoned that as the Earth orbits the sun at around 66,000 miles per hour (106,216 kilometers per hour), our planet should be moving through the ether, which had been deemed to be stationary. That meant Earth must be moving with respect to the stationary ether. And if the ether is the medium through which light waves ripple, this should mean the speed of light differs ever so slightly in the direction Earth is traveling.

Conducted in Cleveland, Ohio, the Michelson–Morley experiment used a piece of kit called a Michelson–Morley interferometer to test differences in speed for a wave of light traveling perpendicular to Earth and one traveling parallel to Earth. Michelson and Morley had expected to observe an interference pattern caused by the differing travel times of the light waves.

That is what happens when light of the same wavelength arrives at a detector at ever so slightly different times, meaning the peaks and troughs of the waves no longer perfectly align. However, to the surprise of the American physicists, no interference was detected. This meant no difference in the travel speed of light, essentially disproving the existence of the ether.

The negation of the luminiferous ether was of vital importance as it opened the door to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905 and general relativity in 1915, the latter of which revised our understanding of gravity and led to our knowledge of black holes and gravitational waves well before the experimental observation of such objects.

Other galaxies!

Though scientists realized Earth isn't in the center of the solar system before the birth of the U.S., there was another glaring misconception. It was believed that the Milky Way, first proposed in Immanuel Kant's "Island Universe" theory in 1755, still occupied a unique position in the universe — with the existence of other galaxies a hotly debated topic. The solar system itself was also thought to be at the center of the Milky Way.

In 1785, astronomer William Herschel set about mapping our galaxy, correctly determining the disk-like shape of the Milky Way but incorrectly placing the solar system at its heart. This picture changed in 1918, when American astronomer Harlow Shapley determined that dense groups of stars called globular clusters are centered on a distant core in the direction of the Sagittarius constellation. This placed the solar system off-center in the galaxy. Today we've expanded upon this, moving our planetary system 27,000 light-years away from the Galactic Center and onto one of our galaxy's spiral arms.

It was five years later, in 1923, that the uniqueness of the Milky Way was shattered. Using the 100-inch (2.5-meter) Hooker telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory, American astronomer Edwin Hubble imaged the Andromeda nebula (Messier 31) and determined that it was at least a million light-years away. Though we now know this distance is closer to 2.5 million light-years, it was still enough to place M31 outside the boundary of the Milky Way.

The fact that the Andromeda nebula is actually the Andromeda galaxy, a distant and separate galaxy from our own, was announced to the public via The New York Times in Nov. 1924. We were no longer alone galactically — but Hubble wasn't done.

The universe is not static

Another assumption at this time was that the universe was static, something supported by Einstein in 1917. However, in 1929, Hubble discovered that the light from distant galaxies was being redshifted. In other words, the wavelengths of light emanating from these sources were being stretched as those wavelengths traveled toward us. This indicated that these galaxies are moving away from us. Convinced of this, Einstein abandoned his model of the static universe.

American scientists weren't done revising our entire picture of the cosmos, however. In 1998, U.S. researchers like Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess, and Robert Kirshner were part of two international teams of researchers that discovered that not only is the universe expanding, but this expansion is actually speeding up.

Dark energy was introduced as the mysterious force driving this accelerating expansion. It remains today one of the most pressing mysteries of the cosmos.

Possibly by the time the U.S. celebrates its 300th birthday, the mystery of dark matter will have been solved along with other cosmic puzzles such as the nature of dark matter. If this is the case, it is highly likely that U.S. projects like the Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope, and the upcoming Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope will put American innovators and scientists at the forefront of these developments, just as their predecessors have been for the last 250 years.

Infant stars or "protostars" celebrate their independence with cosmic fireworks in a stunning new image from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).

NASA released this image to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the birth of the U.S. It is a fitting tribute as the protostars break away from the molecular cloud in which they formed to become fully fledged stars in their own right.

Protostars are born when patches in vast molecular clouds cool and form clumps, collapsing under their gravity. Protostars continue to gather material from these prenatal clouds until they have enough mass to trigger the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores, the process that defines what a main-sequence star is.

What is it?

The protostars sit in a region known as FS Tau, located around 450 light-years away, which has become a popular target for astronomers aiming to study the evolution of low-mass stars.

Why is it incredible?

Though previously well studied, it has taken the incredible infrared observing power of the JWST to peer through the thick clouds of star-forming gas and dust in FS Tau and visualize the protostars of this region in great detail.

One of the aims of this research is to investigate the impact that radiation and outflows of material from low-mass stars have on their environment. The outflows occur as protostars gather matter from their surroundings, occasionally blasting out some of this matter.

The JWST image of FS Tau reveals gaps between the outflows that support the theory that protostars gather or "accrete" matter in discrete episodes, between which they lie dormant.

The effect of protostar outflows on their environment can be seen in the JWST image via the prominent blue ridges. These represent gas that has been shunted by outflows, creating dense regions of matter that reflect light from proximate protostars.

The result is cosmic fireworks that put even the most impressive July 4 celebrations to shame. But at least we get hot dogs.

Want to see Uranus for yourself? Independence Day morning offers one of the best opportunities in decades, as the distant ice giant passes extraordinarily close to Mars in the predawn sky.

Although we often hear that only five planets are visible to the unaided eye, Uranus can also be seen from Earth under the right conditions. As the seventh planet from the sun, it is very faint — near the threshold of naked-eye visibility at roughly sixth magnitude — so viewing it requires a very dark sky with little to no significant light pollution.

The second challenge is knowing exactly where to look. Uranus is faint enough to blend into a background of similarly dim stars, but early on Saturday, July 4, at around 4 a.m. local daylight time, Mars provides a useful guide. On that Independence Day morning, Mars and Uranus will appear unusually close together in the sky.

Finding Mars first

Mars currently rises about half an hour before the first light of dawn. It is still relatively faint at about magnitude +1.3, and through a telescope it appears tiny, measuring less than 4.5 arc seconds across. Look for it low in the east-northeast, about 5.5 degrees directly below the Pleiades star cluster.

• Find Mars low in the east-northeast before dawn.
• Point binoculars or a small telescope at Mars.
• Look almost directly above Mars for a much fainter, star-like point of light. That will be Uranus.

What Uranus will look like

Uranus should resemble a tiny greenish star and will appear only about 1/63 as bright as Mars. Although Uranus is nearly 7.5 times larger than Mars, it is more than 9.5 times farther away as seen from Earth. At about 1.88 billion miles (3.02 billion km), it appears only slightly smaller than Mars in apparent size, measuring about 3.5 arc seconds across.

How close will they be?

According to Belgian celestial calculator Jean Meeus, Mars and Uranus will be closest at 5 a.m. Universal Time (UTC) on July 4, when only 6 arc minutes will separate them. For comparison, Mizar — the middle star in the Big Dipper's handle — and its fainter companion Alcor are separated by about 12 arc minutes. In other words, Mars and Uranus will appear only half as far apart as Mizar and Alcor.

Observers with exceptionally sharp vision and very dark skies may want to try spotting Uranus near Mars without optical aid, though binoculars or a small telescope will make the view much easier.

Mars and Uranus are in conjunction on average once every 2.38 years. But meetings as close as this one are quite rare, occurring on average once about every 40 years. The next similarly close approach between these two worlds that is readily visible in a dark sky is not due until Dec. 8, 2147!

A Bonus Target: HIP 19146

If you are using a small telescope, look for an even fainter object about 2 arc minutes below Uranus. This is not a Uranian satellite, but a background star cataloged as HIP 19146. The "HIP" designation comes from Hipparcos; a European Space Agency satellite launched in 1989 and operated until 1993. Hipparcos was the first space mission devoted to precision astrometry, the accurate measurement of celestial positions and distances.

On the morning of the upcoming Mars-Uranus conjunction, try to spot this eighth-magnitude star as well. It is about 11 times dimmer than Uranus and lies roughly 882 light-years from Earth.

Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York's Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for Natural History magazine, Sky and Telescope, The Old Farmer's Almanac and other publications.

The United States has taken some significant steps into the final frontier during its first 250 years.

The nation has put people on the moon, helped build and operate a long-running space station in low Earth orbit (LEO) and sent fleets of robotic explorers to many corners of the solar system — and even beyond it, into interstellar space.

All of this work has been done relatively recently, as the space age didn't dawn until 1957; when the U.S. was born on July 4, 1776, humanity was still seven years away from even balloon-borne flight. Where might we be another 250 years from now, on the nation's 500th birthday, should it be fortunate enough to live that long? Trying to see that far into the future is so difficult as to be a fool's errand, but it's fun. So let's have a brief and far from exhaustive crack.

A vibrant in-space economy

The United States and other space powers have already established an off-Earth economy — one based on the activities of communications satellites. Companies like Vantor and Planet sell imagery to a variety of customers, for example, while others like SpaceX (via its subsidiary Starlink) and Viasat provide internet service from above.

That nascent industry will doubtless expand greatly over the next 250 years, and we're already seeing some of the directions it may go. For instance, space tourism has gotten off the ground; wealthy people can book trips to suborbital space, and the super-rich can fly all the way to Earth orbit, as the experience of NASA chief Jared Isaacman shows. (Isaacman, a tech billionaire, has funded and commanded two missions around our planet using SpaceX hardware.)

We've also seen the dawn of in-space manufacturing, with companies such as Made In Space making stuff off Earth and bringing it down for analysis (and eventually, if all goes to plan, sale). This is a field that could really explode over the coming years and decades, according to Dava Newman, director of the Human Systems Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who served as deputy administrator of NASA from 2015 to 2017.

"If you give me a nice big time horizon to look at, I've actually always thought it would be a pharmaceutical breakthrough — manufacturing, more medical-related," Newman told Space.com.

That's because the microgravity environment is great for growing flawless crystals, potentially enabling a newly efficient and effective production line for a wide range of pharmaceuticals and other high-value goods. The California company Varda Space recently demonstrated this potential, successfully crystallizing a stable form of the HIV drug ritonavir in one of its orbital "minifactories" and bringing the drug safely down to Earth.

Asteroid mining, too

There are other potential drivers of a booming off-Earth economy as well. Futurist, astrophysicist and sci-fi author David Brin pointed to asteroid mining, which several American companies, including AstroForge and TransAstra, are investigating seriously already.

"That's where the riches are," Brin told Space.com.

Those riches come in several forms. For starters, many asteroids are thought to harbor considerable amounts of water, which humanity could leverage for life support and split into oxygen and hydrogen, key components of rocket fuel. Space-rock mining could therefore enable the operation of off-Earth propellant depots, which would allow voyaging spacecraft to top off their tanks on the go and explore the solar system more deeply and ambitiously.

Then there are the metals — industrial-grade stuff like iron and nickel, which could feed the off-Earth manufacturing industry, and precious species such as platinum. So there are huge economic opportunities for us in the asteroid belt, according to Brin.

“The question is, will we be able to leverage asteroidal resources to get a takeoff industry out there?" he said. "And will we remain friends with the robots out there that are doing all of the work?”

That latter question is a serious one, for robotics and artificial intelligence will advance a great deal over the next 250 years. Indeed, humanity will likely merge with robots in meaningful and ethically confounding ways, according to Brin.

"There will be fuzzy boundaries between us and the robots," he said. Our species, Brin added, may eventually "range from residual totally organic types through cyborgs and multilinked clusters all the way to robots who either think of themselves as human citizens, or at least know that it's in their best interest to fool us into thinking they think that."

Living off Earth

There's no guarantee that the U.S. will be able to exploit the plentiful resources of the asteroid belt by 2276. For instance, Brin stressed that the nation, and the world at large, are in danger of falling into a sort of "lobotomized feudalism," which could derail most of our spaceflight hopes and dreams.

If we can avoid that trap, however, Brin thinks that asteroid mining could fuel our expansion into the solar system over the coming decades.

"I have no doubt that, if we restore a rational, scientific civilization, there will be city lights on the moon," Brin said. "I am hoping there will be city lights on the asteroids."

Newman has a different outlook. For starters, she's opposed to the idea of transplanting human civilization on a large scale to pristine worlds.

"I'm not a fan, of course, of colonization," she said. "We should never do that. History should teach us something."

She also doesn't see a business case that would drive companies to spend large amounts of money on moon and Mars activities, which could be prerequisites for the establishment of large human settlements there. And she's skeptical that many people would want to pack up their lives and move to Mars or the moon permanently.

"There's a reason Antarctica is not populated," Newman said. "I love it, I can't get enough of it, but that's pretty crazy. Most people don't want to be in a very isolated, confined environment."

Mars settlement, she added, "doesn't make any sense. It's not Option B. We have to take care of this planet."

Newman still thinks that we should (and will) explore the moon and Mars in the not-too-distant future. But she envisions a much smaller-scale effort that's driven by ambitious science goals — a committed search for signs of life on Mars, for example. This effort will likely start with small outposts on the moon, which will serve as stepping stones for similar activities on the Red Planet.

This vision is not exactly far-fetched; it's the approach that NASA is currently taking with its Artemis program. The agency plans to build an astronaut outpost near the lunar south pole over the next decade or so, then use the information gained to send astronauts to Mars in the late 2030s or 2040s.

A moon or Mars base would be a huge breakthrough, of course, but it wouldn't be our species' first toehold in the final frontier. We've had one since November 2000, when the International Space Station — a partnership involving the space agencies of the U.S., Russia, Europe, Canada and Japan — began hosting astronauts on a continuous basis. The orbiting lab has been occupied by rotating crews ever since.

Are we alone?

The U.S., and the world at large, will doubtless make great strides in space science over the coming years as well. Indeed, Newman thinks we will answer perhaps the biggest question of all — and doing so won't take anywhere close to 250 years.

"I think definitely we will have found [alien] life," she said. "I think we might find the evidence of life — and it's probably going to be past life — in the coming decade."

Her optimism is based on a number of data points. One is the example of our own planet: Life sprang up here about four billion years ago, not long after Earth had cooled enough to support oceans on its surface. That suggests it doesn't take a miracle for a world to go from habitable to inhabited.

And our solar system hosts multiple worlds that could be habitable. Multiple moons in the outer solar system — Saturn's Enceladus and Jupiter's Europa, for example — host big liquid-water oceans beneath their icy shells. Titan, Saturn's biggest satellite, hosts hydrocarbon lakes and streams on its surface and likely has a buried water ocean as well, raising the possibility that it could support two entirely different types of life.

Then there's Mars. Scientists know that the Red Planet had lots of surface water in the distant past, around four billion years ago. They see evidence of lakes and streams in many Martian locales, some of which have been explored by rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance. And both of those NASA robots have discovered complex organics, the carbon-containing building blocks of life as we know it. Such molecules are not convincing evidence of life, but they're suggestive and intriguing. And humanity aims to follow up on such finds — possibly by astronauts working out of a research base. Mars is therefore the place where we'll likely make the big discovery, Newman said.

Brin was similarly optimistic, predicting that we'll find evidence of alien life in the next 20 years "if we reclaim our potential as an exploratory culture." Mars could be the place it's found, but he thinks the chances are perhaps even greater on Titan and "ice roof" worlds like Europa and Enceladus.

"I would bet 3 to 1 odds we'll find life under ice roofs," Brin said.

If multiple icy moons have life, and we can confirm that each one represents an independent origin, that would tell us something very profound: That life is exceedingly common across the universe.

"It would mean that every star you can see, except perhaps the blue supergiants, has life," Brin said.

The search for intelligent life

The first alien lifeforms we find will probably be microbes, because most life across the universe is likely microbial. That's an inference we can take from Earth, the only inhabited world we know of: Life here remained single-celled for about three billion years, suggesting it's tough to make the leap to more complex organisms.

Becoming a technological civilization is another big leap, one that humanity made just a few centuries ago. But given the vastness of the universe, in both time and space, life has probably made this leap in other places as well, and Brin is bullish on our chances of crossing paths with such aliens — provided we make the right choices in the near future.

“If we restore a dynamic and scientific civilization, we might get some answers to that within 20 to 30 years," he said.

Those answers might come close to home, in the form of long-hidden "lurker" probes sent to our solar system to monitor us on the sly. Or we might pull a world-changing SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence) signal from the sky, one that could not have come from a natural, astrophysical source.

Given how young humans are technologically, however — we started launching things to space less than 70 years ago, after all — we probably won't get the drop on advanced aliens, if they're out there.

"Is it likely that intelligent life will actually find us before we find them? I think that's a pretty good probability," said Newman, who sits on the SETI Institute's board of directors.

And we have a chance to mature greatly as a spacefaring civilization over the next 250 years, Brin said. If everything goes well — we don't fall back into feudalism, for example, and we fully exploit the resources of the asteroid belt — the U.S., and humanity overall, we will likely be able to explore other star systems in a meaningful way. He cited laser sailing as a promising propulsion method, one that could send robots — and perhaps cybernetic versions of ourselves — very far afield on reasonable timescales.

"If we make a dynamic, enlightenment civilization, then it's 100% that we'll send somebody out there," Brin said.

SpaceX grew its Starlink network by 24 more satellites on Wednesday evening (July 1) with a launch from California.

A Falcon 9 rocket carrying the two dozen new relay spacecraft (Group 17-46) lifted off from Space Launch Complex 4 East at Vandenberg Space Force Base at 10:58 p.m. EDT (0258 GMT on July 2 or 7:58 p.m. PDT local time). About an hour later, SpaceX confirmed the satellites were successfully deployed in low Earth orbit.

The Falcon 9's first stage (Booster 1100) completed its seventh flight to space and back, landing on the drone ship "Of Course I Still Love You" positioned in the Pacific Ocean.

SpaceX's Starlink megaconstellation now totals more than 10,700 active satellites, according to tracker Jonathan McDowell. The service supports connectively around the globe, as well as in-flight and direct-to-cell services.

Wednesday's launch was SpaceX's 79th Falcon 9 liftoff of the year.

Less than a week after its last test, SpaceX's latest Starship spacecraft went back to the stand for engine checkouts ahead of a coming test flight.

The upper stage for SpaceX's giant Starship rocket, referred to simply as "Ship" — Ship 40, in this case — underwent a static-fire test of all six of its Raptor engines at the company's Massey site in Starbase, Texas. Ship 40 is in line for the 13th test flight of a fully stacked Starship, which is expected within the next month or so.

SpaceX posted a video of the engine test to its X account on Thursday (July 2), showing several angles of the ignition sequence and all six engines (Ship is equipped with three sea-level and three vacuum-optimized Raptors) firing to simulate flight-like conditions on the vehicle.

Ship 40 conducted its first-ever static fire last week, lighting a single Raptor for about 15 seconds. This more recent test involved all six Raptors and lasted a full minute, according to SpaceX.

Ship 40 will take part in the second "Version 3" (V3) Starship launch; SpaceX debuted the updated rocket prototype during a test flight on May 22. That mission went smoothly, for the most part, but it wasn't a complete success; the rocket's Super Heavy booster failed to maneuver its way to a soft ocean splashdown as planned. So the upcoming Flight 13 will likely mirror much of the flight path and mission objectives as Flight 12, including relighting one of Ship's Raptor engines in space.

Starship is SpaceX's super-heavy lift rocket, designed for seamless landing and reuse. The more capable V3 stands 408 feet (124.4 meters) tall — about 5 feet (1.5 m) taller than V2 — and is the biggest, most powerful rocket ever to fly.

Once development is complete and the vehicle is fully operational, SpaceX has big plans for the rocket, including the expansion of its Starlink satellite-internet network in low Earth orbit and landing NASA astronauts on the moon as a part of the Artemis program. The spacecraft will also be capable of delivering heavier payloads to orbit than any other rocket in history.

The success of this most recent engine test puts SpaceX one step closer to Starship Flight 13. Next steps ahead of that launch will include rolling the mission's Super Heavy booster to the pad at Starbase for engine tests of its own. Super Heavy sports 33 Raptor engines at its business end, which produce nearly 20 million pounds of thrust at liftoff. Should Super Heavy's static fire tests go smoothly, Flight 13 could happen as early as August.

"Silo" season 3 is almost upon us, offering another round of riveting episodes of Apple TV's undeniably intriguing sci-fi series. We're about to learn how the end of the world began with the new season's split-timeline between Silo 18 and the Before Times, when the madness all started.

Adapted from Hugh Howey's trilogy of dystopian sci-fi novels, "Wool," "Shift," and "Dust," "Silo" was created by and executive produced by Emmy-winning producer Graham Yost ("Speed," "Band of Brothers," "Justified") and initially debuted on Apple TV back in 2023. This third season promises to be the best yet, and we guarantee that it's going to be an eye-opening descent into the core of the overarching tale of humanity’s last band of hearty heroes and nefarious villains trying to stay sane.

Dump out your memory-suppressing H2O and let's dig into "Silo" season 3!

WHEN DOES "SILO" SEASON 3 ARRIVE?

The third and penultimate season of "Silo" premieres on July 3, 2026, at 12:00 a.m. Eastern Time (ET) for the first episode of what’s going to be a wildly eventful 10-episode outing.

Fresh weekly episodes will arrive each Friday until the season finale is broadcast on Sept. 4, 2026.

HOW TO WATCH "SILO" SEASON 3

"Silo" season 3 will stream exclusively on Apple TV.

"Silo" is an Apple original that explores the last vestiges of humankind, surviving in 144-level doomsday bunkers, and the various factions of post-apocalyptic society struggling to exist and understand why the outside environment is a death sentence.

The first two seasons of "Silo" are also now available to watch in their entirety on Apple TV, so you can catch up on all the dark drama.

If you're going to be out of the country when the show debuts, you can still watch it on your streaming service of choice using a VPN.

You'll be able to connect to your streaming services, no matter where you are on Earth (though you might not have wifi if you're hiding in one of the Silos).

WHAT IS THE PLOT OF "SILO" SEASON 3?

Warning: Spoilery "Silo" Season 2 Territory Ahead!

The prime timeline of "Silo" takes place in the far future, some 352 years from now, but nobody in Silo 18 is really counting, or even owns accurate calendars, now that we think about it.

Fans who've followed the show religiously know that Juliette trudged back from Silo 17 just before a mass Silo 18 exodus in last year’s finale episode after learning about a lethal safeguard installed in each bunker by the Founders to prevent rebellion.

She's met in the airlock by an unhinged and disillusioned Bernard (Tim Robbins) armed with a gun, and before you can say "Burnt Toast," the automatic fire system activates, and they’re both engulfed in raging flames.

That same episode ends with a flashback three centuries earlier to a restaurant in Washington, D.C., after a dirty bomb has been detonated in the city, where we're introduced to Helen and Daniel, two pivotal new characters that we’ll be following heavily in this upcoming outing.

"Season three of 'Silo' continues the saga of a dystopian society of 10,000 people living underground under mysterious circumstances, while revealing an origin story set centuries earlier," explains the official synopsis.

"In the present, Juliette Nichols (Rebecca Ferguson) survives her forced 'cleaning' but returns with memory loss as the silo recovers from rebellion and faces a dangerous new threat. Meanwhile, in the 'Before Times,' journalist Helen Drew (Jessica Henwick) and Congressman Daniel Keene (Ashley Zukerman) uncover a conspiracy that pulls them into a chain of events with catastrophic, irreversible consequences."

"SILO" SEASON 3 TEASERS AND TRAILERS

Sneak peeks at "Silo's" third season have been sparse, and with an abundance of startling reveals about to be discovered, fans should be grateful that the PR folks at Apple TV haven’t exposed too much as our survivors try to make sense of their depressing upside-down world.

The first reverse-edited teaser landed back on Apr. 21, 2026, which got us pumped for the pandemonium!

The main trailer debuted on June 2, 2026, and we were immediately brought up to speed about Juliette being inside the fire box for three minutes, but she's now experiencing amnesia and can’t remember her friends or what secret she uncovered while inside Silo 17.

We also gain more info on the silo Founders and the monumental 21st-century engineering project that created them to rescue humanity from extinction.

"The end of the world cannot be stopped, it can only be survived," states Colin Hanks' chilling billionaire industrialist character.

WHO ARE THE "SILO" SEASON 3 CAST AND CREATORS?

"Silo" season 3's outstanding ensemble cast includes:

• Rebecca Ferguson – Juliette Nichols
• Jessica Henwick – Helen
• Ashley Zukerman – Daniel
• Common – Robert Sims
• Harriet Walter – Martha Walker
• Chinaza Uche – Paul Billings
• Avi Nash – Lukas Kyle
• Alexandria Riley – Camille Sims
• Shane McRae – Knox
• Remmie Milner – Shirley Campbell
• Rick Gomez – Patrick Kennedy
• Billy Postlethwaite – Hank
• Clare Perkins – Carla McLain
• Steve Zahn – Jimmy Conroy

The following newcomers will also be joining the series in unknown roles:

• Colin Hanks
• Laura Innes
• Jessica Brown Findlay
• Morven Christie
• Reed Birney
• Matt Craven

Produced by Apple Studios and AMC Studios, "Silo"'s upcoming 10-chapter nightmare is executive produced by showrunner Graham Yost, Michael Dinner, Rebecca Ferguson, Nina Jack, Joanna Thapa, Morten Tyldum, Howey, Amber Templemore, Fred Golan, and Rémi Aubuchon.

WILL THERE BE A "SILO" SEASON 4?

Yes, we’re not out of the hole quite yet!

Apple TV gave a green light for both "Silo's" third and fourth seasons back in December of 2024 after overwhelming acclaim and impressive viewership numbers, guaranteeing a proper end to the "Silo" saga. Season 4 will be the final season, though.

"It has been a richly rewarding experience to adapt Hugh's epic novels with our partners at Apple, and we are thrilled to have the opportunity to bring this complete story to the screen over the course of four seasons," Yost shared after Apple TV’s renewal.

"With the final two chapters of 'Silo,' we can't wait to give fans of the show an incredibly satisfying conclusion to the many mysteries and unanswered questions contained within the walls of these silos."

The United States' 250th birthday is almost here, so why not take a break from the fireworks and explore four America-themed wonders hiding in the summer night sky?

Our celestial sightseeing targets run the gamut from lone stars and constellations to historic lunar landmarks and an uncannily shaped nebula — some of which will require a small telescope or a camera to truly appreciate.

If you're new to the night sky, then you may want to check out our roundup of the best stargazing smartphone apps, which will help you navigate to specific targets using augmented reality technology.

Apollo 11 landing site

One of America's finest moments came on July 20, 1969, as Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin Jr. took humanity's first steps on the surface of Earth's moon. Here's how to spot the region of the moon that contains the Apollo 11 "Tranquility Base" landing site with the naked eye on the weeks surrounding a full moon.

First, find the dark expanse of Mare Tranquilitatis darkening a swathe of the moon's eastern limb close to the equator, where ancient lava flows once filled networks of impact basins before solidifying to create vast basaltic plains.

The Apollo 11 landing site is located on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Tranquility, between the Sabine and Moltke impact craters, which can be spotted with the aid of a small telescope. You can also search for the Apollo 11 backup landing sites using our handy guide, or even attempt to find where each Apollo-era mission touched down on the lunar surface.

Spica

The United States' relationship with the night sky dates back to its founding. After all, the stars depicted on the nation's earliest flags were intended to symbolize the birth of a new constellation, with each representing one of the 13 original colonies that formed the early union, according to the Smithsonian Institution.

You can honor that spirit on the nation's semiquincentennial anniversary by finding a star whose light left its surface around the same time that the United States declared its independence!

The blue-white double star system Alpha Virginis — known better as Spica — is located roughly 250 light-years from Earth in the constellation Virgo. As such, the light cast out from its surface some 250 years ago is only now reaching Earth, having traveled for centuries through the near vacuum of space at the speed of light — a blistering 186,282 miles per second (299,791 kilometers per second).

To find Spica, you first need to locate the seven bright stars of the Big Dipper asterism above the northwestern horizon after sunset, and trace an imaginary line along the curve of the Big Dipper's handle. Do that, and you'll come across the bright orange star Arcturus, the 4th brightest star in the night sky. Continue that arc beyond Arcturus and the next bright blue-white star you find will be Spica!

The constellation Aquila

Next up, we have the constellation Aquila, the "Eagle", which shines along the glowing ribbon of the Milky Way in early summer. The constellation evokes the shape of a great Bald Eagle, which was adopted as a national emblem of the United States in 1782. Aquila itself has been associated with an eagle for thousands of years and was catalogued by the ancient Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in the second century AD.

A good way to find Aquila is to search for the bright star Altair, which can be seen glowing halfway up the southern sky to the left of the Milky Way for viewers in the U.S. around midnight in early summer. Altair, along with the nearby stars Alshain and Tarazed, represent the head of the great eagle, while the body and raised wings of the celestial bird are depicted in a cross formation of stars beneath.

North America Nebula

Our final stop is the North American Nebula — a gorgeous emission nebula whose vast glowing clouds of interstellar hydrogen resemble the outline of North America.

The North America Nebula is too faint to see with the naked eye. However, a pair of 10x50 binoculars or a small telescope should reveal the star-forming region as a gentle brightening in the band of the Milky Way from a dark sky location, less than five degrees from the bright star Deneb, which shines above the eastern horizon after sunset.

Its structure is best seen through long exposure photography, which will help reveal the dusty filaments and chaotic cosmic clouds that form the nebula. Read our beginner's guide to photographing the Milky Way for more!

Want to get a closer look at the night sky? Then be sure to check out our roundups of the best telescopes and binoculars for stargazing, along with our expert tips for beginning your amateur astronomy journey.

Editor's Note: If you would like to share your astrophotography with Space.com's readers, then please send your photo(s), comments, and your name and location to spacephotos@space.com.

Astronomers have used the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) to observe an oddball gas giant exoplanet orbiting a dead star, a white dwarf, located some 80 light-years away. This "life after death" system gives scientists a portentous vision of what the solar system may look like in around 6 billion years after the sun has exhausted the hydrogen in its core, shed its outer layers, and left behind a smoldering white dwarf stellar remnant.

Prior to the final stages of that transformation, our star will have become a red giant, swelling out to many times its original radius, swallowing the inner rocky planets including Earth but leaving the outer planets  — although changing them irrevocably. Reflecting this, the white dwarf at the heart of this research is orbited by a Jupiter-sized exoplanet, designated WD 1856 b.

As WD 1856 b orbits its dead parent star, it crosses or "transits" the face of this white dwarf, known as WD 1856+534. By observing these transits with the JWST, the team was able to measure the mass and temperature of this Jupiter-like planet while also observing the composition of its atmosphere. To their surprise, they found WD 1856 b is hotter than expected. They also discovered how this planet came to have such an unusually tight orbit around its host white dwarf star.

"We're used to looking back in time when we use telescopes, but this is the first time we have been able to look forward to what might happen to the outer planets around the remnant of a sun-like star; it's like using a time machine to peer into the distant future of our solar system," team leader Ryan MacDonald from the University of St Andrews in Scotland said in a statement. "This is just the beginning of our exploration of planets orbiting dead stars with Webb, and the search for further planets orbiting white dwarfs is ongoing.

"Our results show that stellar death is not the end  — some planets experience a vibrant and lively future after the death of their star."

The team's research was published on Wednesday (July) in the journal Nature.

Survivor planet is a real oddball

The gas giant WD 1856 b was first discovered in 2020 by NASA's exoplanet-hunting spacecraft TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) and the Spitzer Space Telescope. TESS detects exoplanets using the tiny dips in starlight they cause as they transit their host stars, blocking starlight.

This was the first intact planet ever discovered closely orbiting a white dwarf. What immediately stood out about WD 1856 b was how close its orbit is to its white dwarf host. The orbit is around 2% the size of Earth's orbit around the sun and takes just 1.4 Earth days to complete.

"The planet is quite the oddball. It's about the size of Jupiter, but the white dwarf it orbits is the size of Earth, so the planet is seven times larger than its star," MacDonald said.

The planet couldn't have always been in such a close orbit to its star. If it had, it would have been obliterated when the star transformed into a red giant before shedding its puffy outer layers and leaving behind a white dwarf.

"The big question is how WD 1856 b ended up where it is today, and there are two theories," team member Christopher O'Connor of Northwestern University said. "One is that the planet was swallowed by the host star as it was dying, and managed to survive on the inside. The other is that the migration took place due to the gravitational effect of other objects in the system. The white dwarf is part of a triple star system, and the outer companion stars could have influenced WD 1856 b's orbit."

The clue that allowed the team to differentiate between these migration mechanisms was the temperature of WD 1856 b, which at 260 degrees Fahrenheit (127 degrees Celsius) is about 240 degrees hotter than it would be if its only source of heat were the light from its white dwarf parent star.

With no energy available to warm the planet to these temperatures, the team reasoned that the temperature must be a residual effect of prior warming either from being engulfed by the red giant or during an inward migration. Using observations of the planet's mass of between four and 11 times that of Jupiter, the team was able to model how it would have cooled over time.

MacDonald and colleagues determined that WD 1856 b was likely heated up around 3 billion to 5.5 billion years ago. Its host star has been a white dwarf for longer than that, which means the exoplanet was safe during the star's destructive red giant phase, and moved into its tight orbit afterwards.

"As the planet moved inwards, its interactions with the strong gravity of the white dwarf will have caused it to warm up considerably, and it has been cooling ever since," O'Connor said.

The results indicate that Jupiter could move closer to the sun after the violent drama of its red giant phase and the destruction of the inner solar system. The findings also demonstrate the incredible observing power of the JWST and how the $10 billion space telescope is still discovering things no other instrument can.

"White dwarfs like WD 1856 are exceptionally dim compared to the planet-hosting stars we normally observe with the JWST," team member Victoria Boehm of Cornell University said.

"To make things even harder, the planet's transit only lasts 8 minutes, so it's very much if you blink you miss it! Capturing enough light to see WD 1856's spectrum, while also doing so quickly enough to not miss the transit, is something only Webb can do."

A potentially habitable rocky world has been found in the habitable zone around a red dwarf just 25 light-years from us.

However, faced with a hostile wind of radiation from its host star, it remains unclear whether this new exoplanet supports an atmosphere, or the possibility of life. Nevertheless, astronomers are celebrating the discovery.

"This one's exciting," said Paul Robertson of the University of California, Irvine, in a statement. "It's one of our closest cosmic neighbors. Twenty-five light years sounds like a long way, but the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years across, so in that respect it's our next-door neighbor."

The planet, designated GJ 3378b, orbits the faint red dwarf star in the constellation of Camelopardalis, the Giraffe. It was discovered in 2024 by French astronomers using the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope in Mauna Kea, but American astronomers have revised those initial findings, revealing that the planet is possibly more like Earth than we realized.

All we know for sure is the mass and the orbit of GJ 3378b. We do not yet know whether it is like Earth or not – it could have land and sea and clouds and life, or it could be airless and cratered.

The planet is not seen to transit, or pass in front of its star, blocking its light from our vantage point. Instead, GJ 3378b was detected by the effects of its gravity tugging on its parent star. This causes the star to wobble around the center of mass that it shares with the planet, a wobbling that is betrayed by a Doppler shift in the star's light that can be measured by its spectra, the wavelengths of light that it emits.

When it was discovered in 2024, its mass was measured to be 5.26 times the mass of Earth, putting it in mini-Neptune territory of being a larger, mostly gaseous world. However, by taking a second look at the planet using two different telescopes, Robertson's team was able to show that the planet's true mass is 2.3 times the mass of Earth. This means that it is closer to being a rocky super-Earth instead.

Furthermore, the same observations found that GJ 3378b's orbital period is 21 days, not the 25 days that had originally been measured. This means that the planet is closer to the star than had been thought, sitting comfortably within the habitable zone where temperatures will be suitable for liquid water on the surface of a planet with an atmosphere. So from that point of view, the chance of GJ 3378b being habitable, if not inhabited, seems fair.

"This super-Earth gets about 90% of the radiation from its host star that Earth gets from its sun, so it's right in the sweet spot," said Robertson.

One significant problem, however, is that red dwarfs spit out harmful torrents of radiation in fierce gusts of their stellar winds, which can strip away a planet's atmosphere. This raises the question, does GJ 3378b even have an atmosphere?

Currently there is no way to tell. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has been probing for atmospheres around other rocky worlds orbiting red dwarfs, such as those in the TRAPPIST-1 system. It does so by transit spectroscopy, where an atmosphere wrapped around a planet absorbs some of the star's light filtering through it, leaving dark absorption lines in the star's spectrum.

Unfortunately, GJ 3378b does not transit its star. This means that astronomers will have to wait until the 2040s, when NASA's Habitable Worlds Observatory will hopefully launch, to answer the question of whether GJ 3378b really does have an atmosphere or not.

Still, astronomers are hopeful. GJ 3378b is right on the edge of the zone where planets are expected to be seriously battered by radiation, meaning it could have escaped the worst. If so, there might be more than just an atmosphere for the Habitable Worlds Observatory to discover.

"The ultimate goal is biosignatures," said University of Texas at Austin astronomer Michael Endl in a separate statement. "We really want to know, are we alone in the universe? We are still in the reconnaissance phase of our solar neighborhood, trying to find the planets around the nearest stars because those will be the easiest ones to detect a biosignature on."

"This planet brings us one step closer to knowing all of our neighbors and, ultimately, which might be hospitable for life."

The findings were reported on June 30 in The Astrophysical Journal.

It looks there for the taking, doesn't it? The third rock from the sun just sitting there, all defenceless, run by squabbling politicians ruling over a human race who'd rather be sharing "get ready with me" videos than vigilantly watching the skies as they should be.

But next time you set your sights on invading planet Earth, remember that it's easier said than done. Some of the mightiest alien attack forces in existence have met their match in this particular corner of the Milky Way, as the residents of this nondescript ball of rock have repeatedly found ways to repel extraterrestrial attackers — even when they're massively outgunned.

So don't embarrass yourself in front of your attack fleet. Having painstakingly researched numerous previous assaults on Earth, we've assembled a guide to all the things you should — and indeed shouldn't — do the next time you try to bring those snivelling humans to their knees. Follow these tips, and the Earth can be yours to do with as you please.

DO… target major landmarks

Case study: "Independence Day"

If you really want to show your prospective underlings who's boss, you'll need to make a big entrance. Hovering over major landmarks (eg: The White House, The Empire State Building, the Capitol) is a great place to start, as the eyes of the world's media will be upon you.

Some bystanders will think you came in peace, of course, but by the time the masses have realized what you're up to, it'll be way too late for those puny humans.

DON'T… invade if you have a severe allergic reaction to water

Case study: "Signs"

Don't be like these crop-circle-obsessed idiots. If water's not for you, you really shouldn't set your sights on a planet whose surface is over 70% water. There are other, less soggy worlds to conquer.

DO… dress up as the personification of evil

Case study: "Childhood's End"

A bit of a cheat code, this, but if you really want humans to fear (or, at the very least, respect) you, you could do worse than model yourself on Satan/Beelzebub/Mephistopheles/Old Nick/the Devil/whatever you want to call him. They're sure to hang on your every word, though do be prepared for them to assume the worst of you, even if your intentions are good.

DON'T… get cocky

Case study: "Superman II"

Earth's famously yellow sun works such wonders on Kryptonian physiology that it can be tempting to get everyone you know kneeling at your feet. Alas, hubris is a one-way ticket to the Phantom Zone.

DO… plan ahead

Case study: "War of the Worlds"

Transporting invading forces down to a planet's surface can be such a time-consuming process that unnecessary delays could give locals an opportunity to mount a resistance — inconvenient, to say the least.

By playing the long game, however, you can bury your vehicles of mass destruction underground centuries before they're needed. A few carefully deployed bolts of lightning later, and you'll be frying humans for fun.

DON'T… get drawn into crazy conspiracy theories

Case study: "The X-Files"

Infiltrating the upper echelons of existing Earth governments may seem like an oven-ready route to taking control. But unless you have a clear, easy-to-define plan, your followers will get bored long before your Machiavellian schemes come to fruition.

DO… turn Earth into a pre-industrial society

Case study: "The Tripods"

Applying mind-controlling "Caps" to 14-year-old Earthers is a smart move that can ensure they'll spend their lives worshipping you as gods.

But arguably the Master's smartest move was rendering all Earth technology obsolete, making all the advances of the Industrial Revolution null and void – nobody's going to fight off your giant three-legged war machines with pitchforks and rotten cabbages.

DON'T… telegraph your arrival

Case study: "3 Body Problem"

There's a lot to be said for surprise attacks.

So if you're confined to sub-light speed travel (damn you, Einstein!), it's probably best not to give humanity a few centuries' head start — even if you're not confident their tech won't surpass yours in the meantime.

DO… go back to an earlier point in history

Case study: "Star Trek: First Contact"

It's said that the definition of madness is doing the same thing again and again and expecting a different result. Cybernetic terrors, the Borg were quick to realize this, and — after one too many defeats at the hands of the technologically inferior Federation – changed the rules of engagement by travelling back in time to assimilate humanity before they had the wherewithal to fight back.

Employ this method, and resistance really will be futile.

DON'T… limit your aspirations to a small town

Case study: "The World's End"

We get it. You find a small suburban town you like – with more than its fair share of charming bars – and putting down roots seems the only logical thing to do. Being top dog on the local council, however, is not the same as world domination.

DO… develop the ability to loop time

Case study: "Edge of Tomorrow"

We all make mistakes, but that really doesn't matter if you can channel your inner Punxsutawney Phil and turn back time. By trapping everyone else in your own personal Groundhog Day, you can learn from your battlefield errors, fix the things that once went wrong, and ensure you come out on top. Every. Single. Time.

DON'T… skimp on your disguises

Case study: "The Invaders"

It's the small details that count. If your tech is sufficiently advanced to craft convincing human facsimiles, why not push the boat out a little further and give them a pulse and a pinky finger that doesn't stick out at a telltale weird angle?

DO… have humans raise your offspring

Case study: "Village of the Damned"

Even if their offspring are evil little ****s, humans tend to love their kids. Take advantage of this evolutionary flaw (sorry, trait) by impregnating Earth women and having them raise your progeny for you.

It's unlikely your children will be able to hide their inherited desire for world domination for long, but they'll do what they can to pave the way for your arrival.

DON'T… forget your jabs

Case study: "War of the Worlds"

Even humans know that it's often a good idea to get vaccinated when they visit a new country. So heading to Earth without boosting your immunity to local diseases means risking colossal embarrassment. And lots of excess phlegm.

DO… spread your spores

Case study: "Invasion of the Body Snatchers"

Spaceships are hard to do. Not only do you need to build them and develop a form of propulsion capable of traversing the immense distances between stars, but you also have to keep the creatures inside them alive in the vacuum of space. In other words, too much effort.

If, however, you spread your spores via stellar winds, all the painful work is done for you. Once your seeds have made Earthfall, it's just a small matter of infecting unwitting Earth folk and replacing them with pliant pod people. Job done.

DON'T… forget to update your anti-virus software

Case study: "Independence Day"

Maybe you forgot to renew your anti-virus subscription. Maybe you think your operating system won't be susceptible to malware designed for 'inferior' Earth computers. But come on, losing your fleet to a virus sent by a mid-90s Mac is a system error you'll never live down.

DO… hide in plain sight

Case study: "Bugonia"

Most humans choose not to believe that there are aliens among them. So if you sent a spy to Earth, made sure they looked entirely human and they got themselves, say, a respectable job as the CEO of a major company, nobody would ever suspect they came from another planet.

In fact, anyone who suggested they were born on a different world would be so thoroughly discredited that keeping their identity secret would be a doddle.

DON'T… rely on a hive mind

Case study: "The Avengers"

Sure, there are certain efficiencies that come from networking your computers, but you'll have egg on your face the next time Earth's Mightiest Heroes (their words, not ours) join forces and take out your command ship.

DO… absorb everything in your path

Case study: "The Thing"

If you're the sort of alien species who can absorb and replicate any species you come into contact with, then Earth really is yours for the taking. The only thing you need to avoid is crash-landing in an uninhabited area.

Find your way into more populated parts of the world, however, and projections suggest the entire planet could be yours in just three years.

DON'T… be dandruff

Case study: "Evolution"

Arsenic is poisonous to carbon-based lifeforms, so — the logic goes — selenium must be toxic to anyone whose DNA runs on nitrogen.

The science may be questionable, but would you want to take the risk? Especially when you know Earth has vast supplies of selenium-filled Head & Shoulders waiting to take you out.

DO… have fun

Case study: "Mars Attacks!"

Taking over your nearest neighbor in the Solar System is a serious business, but that doesn't mean you can't have a good laugh while you're doing it.

Want to know what would happen if you attached the head of a "Sex and the City" star to a dog's body? You'll never know unless you try. Playing skittles with ancient landmarks? Why not give it a go? And surely it would be rude not to reimagine Mount Rushmore with your own visage.

DON'T… bother

Case study: "Doctor Who"

For a small blue dot described as "Mostly Harmless" by "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" (other reference works are available), Earth has a lot of supporters across the cosmos. Indeed, so many previous invasions have been thwarted by Time Lords, superheroes, and other unlikely protectors that it may be best to stay at home.

Did a flying saucer just land at NASA? It sure looks like it.

This is actually the weather cover for the core stage of NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, which is currently gearing up to launch the Artemis 3 mission in mid-2027.

What is it?

Aboard NASA's Pegasus barge, floating out in the Atlantic ocean, sits what looks like a classic, sci-fi movie UFO flying saucer. With some flashing lights, this thing flying around in the sky would cause quite a commotion. But it's actually a critical piece of hardware for NASA's Artemis program returning humans to the moon.

The Pegasus barge is a large cargo ship — it's a whopping 310 feet (94.4 meters) long — designed to carry the massive core stage of NASA's SLS megarocket. As the agency marches forward with its plans for Artemis 3, a crewed flight to low Earth orbit that will serve as a key test ahead of future missions to the moon, the SLS prepares for launch.

Once stacked on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida, this flying saucer will actually serve as a weather cover, protecting the rocket's core stage and its thermal systems from the often turbulent and unpredictable weather on the Space Coast.

Why is it incredible?

It is always fun when science fiction and science fact meet. The design of this weather cover could not be closer to the flying saucer designs that have flown across screens in sci-fi flicks for the 1950s and '60s to today. It's interesting to wonder whether these familiar images of flying saucers somehow inspired this functional design.

But however inspiration struck, this weather cover will serve an incredible purpose. It will shield the rocket's core stage, the tallest rocket stage NASA has ever built, which holds hundreds of thousands of gallons of propellant and supports the weight of the rocket's upper stage, payload, and the Orion crew capsule. The safety of the Artemis astronauts and the success of these missions depend on the rocket launching perfectly, and every single piece, including this weather cover, are part of ensuring that success.

The July full moon occurs at 10:36 a.m. EDT (1436 GMT) on July 29, when the lunar disk appears fully lit as it shines opposite the sun in Earth's sky.

The July full moon is often called the "Buck Moon", to reflect the time of the year when young male deer grow out their antlers in the northern hemisphere and is the first full moon of summer, occurring soon after the 2026 summer solstice.

When to see the July full moon

Look to the east at sunset on July 29 to catch the full Buck Moon as it climbs silently into the early summer sky, veiling the nearby stars of the constellation Capricornus behind the glare of its moonlight.

You may notice the lunar disk appear particularly large in the hour following moonrise. This phenomenon is known as the "Moon Illusion", wherein our brains trick us into thinking an object in the sky is bigger than it really is as it rests low on the horizon, with objects nearby to provide context.

Earth's moon could also take on an eye-catching yellow-orange color while close to the horizon, as an effect called Rayleigh scattering deflects the blue wavelengths of its light, while allowing the longer red wavelengths to travel through the atmosphere more easily.

The table below displays local full moon timings for when the moon is 100% illuminated for a selection of cities spread across the globe (note local moonrise and moonset times will vary depending on your location):

Why it's called the Buck Moon

July's full moon is also called the Buck Moon by some Native American tribes in reference to the furry antlers that grow from the heads of young deer around the time it rises. The Algonquin people also called it the Raspberry moon, evoking the fruit that ripens around that time in North America, while the Cree knew it as the Feather Moulting Moon, according to the Old Farmer's Almanac.

It is also known as the Thunder Moon, to reflect the intense storms that can arise in the hot summer months. European peoples, like the Anglo-Saxons, had their own traditional names for the occasion, linking it to the harvest time by referring to it as the Hay Moon, or Corn Moon, according to the Royal Museums Greenwich.

Cultural traditions and festivals

The July full moon marks the celebration of Guru Purnima for followers of the Hindu and Buddhist faiths, when worshippers take time to honor their teachers and spiritual guides — known as Gurus — by fasting, attending a temple and via acts of gratitude and service, per Time and Date.

July 29 also coincides with the holy day of Asalha Puja for the Theravada Buddhist community, which commemorates Buddha's first sermon, which occurred in Sarnath, India, where the spiritual leader imparted the "Four Noble Truths", according to the University of Birmingham.

What else to see in the sky around the full moon

The glare of the Buck Moon will hide many of the fainter wonders of the night sky when it rises above the southeastern horizon at sunset on July 29, making it an ideal time to spot some of the brighter asterisms and solar system planets that glisten in the summer sky.

First, look out for the dazzling trio of stars that form the famous Summer Triangle asterism. Altair can be found shining a little over 30 degrees above the silver glow of the lunar disk, with Vega and Deneb to its upper left, marking the brightest points in the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus, respectively.

The glowing ribbon of the Milky Way tumbles directly through this cosmic triangle before arcing towards the southern horizon, though its diffuse light will be hidden behind a veil of moonlight on the night of the full moon.

Next, look to the right of the Buck Moon to spot the red light of the supergiant star Antares glowing at the heart of the constellation Scorpius, with the stars Acrab, Dschubba and Pi Scorpii glowing above, representing the claws of the celestial beast.

Be on the lookout for bright shooting stars belonging to the southern delta aquarid meteor shower, which comes to a peak overnight on Jul. 30-31. Sadly, the light of the full moon will hide all but the brightest shooting stars around the peak, but there's always a chance that a dramatic fireball could appear to outshine even Venus in the night sky.

Venus will also be visible shining as a bright evening star shining low on the western horizon on the evening of July 29, but will set less than two hours after the sun, along with the stars of the nearby Leo, the lion.

The predawn sky will more than make up for the evening's scant planetary offering, as Saturn, Mercury and Mars form a majestic arc to the left of the full moon, just before it sets below the western horizon. Together, the planets sketch out the path of the ecliptic — the imaginary line that the worlds of our solar system traverse as they glide silently through the night sky.

Observing tips

July 2026 will see the 57th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing. Why not celebrate by finding each of the Apollo-era landing sites using our handy observer's guide?

While you're at it, read our expert's guide to photographing the moon, along with our roundups of the best cameras and lenses for astrophotography, and track Earth's natural satellite as the shadows change its aspect over the course of the month.

Top tips to photograph the moon

• Use a tripod to keep your camera as steady as possible.
• Use a remote shutter/timer to prevent camera wobble.
• A smartphone stargazing app can help you find the exact point of moonrise on your local horizon.
• A lens with a focal length of 12-50 mm is useful for landscape photography, while a focal length of at least 400 mm is advised for capturing more detailed views of the lunar surface.
• The moon can be made to appear particularly large while close to the horizon next to foreground objects, where it may take on an orange-yellow appearance thanks to Rayleigh scattering. A cleaner, more "classic" view can be captured as it soars high overhead.

These times mark the exact instant of full illumination. Your specific moonrise or moonset may be hours earlier or later, depending on your location. For the best viewing plan, use an app such as Stellarium or Sky Safari 7 Pro to find your local moonrise time.

Editor's Note: Did you capture a beautiful picture of the moon and want to share it with Space.com's readers? Then please send your photo(s), comments, and your name and location to spacephotos@space.com.

After Americans declared independence on July 4, 1776, a waning gibbous moon rose in the night sky. To the people celebrating the birth of a new nation, it would have looked much the same as the moon we see today. But there was one subtle difference: 250 years ago, the moon was about 31 feet (9.4 meters) closer to Earth than it is now.

"The moon is currently drifting away from Earth at a rate of about 3.8 centimeters [1.5 inches] per year, which is coincidentally roughly the same speed at which human fingernails grow," says Seth McGowan, president of the Adirondack Sky Center & Observatory in Tupper Lake, New York.

That 31 feet may sound significant, but against the moon's average distance from Earth of 238,855 miles (384,400 km), it's effectively nothing. In fact, the moon's elliptical orbit causes its distance from Earth to vary by about 26,000 miles (43,000 km) every month as it moves between perigee, its closest point to Earth, and apogee, its farthest. "The tiny 31-foot shift over 250 years is entirely swallowed up by that massive monthly variance," says McGowan. But while the moon itself looked much as it does today, the world beneath it was very different.

How Americans used the moon in 1776

Colonial Americans depended on the moon in ways that are easy to forget in an age of electric light and digital clocks. Travelers planned journeys around how much moonlight would be available on a given night. Farmers and Indigenous peoples consulted lunar cycles to anticipate seasonal changes. Mariners tracked the moon's pull on the tides. Even military planners considered lunar illumination — during the Revolutionary War, a moonlit night could aid troop movement and navigation, but it could also expose an army's position to enemy forces. The moon helped people organize their activities in an era when daily life remained closely tied to the natural world.

One of the most popular publications of the colonial era was the almanac. Long before weather apps — or even standardized timekeeping — Americans turned to these annual guides for practical information about moon phases, moonrise and moonset times, eclipses, tides, and seasonal events. Publications such as Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanack" helped popularize the format decades before independence, while later titles, such as "The Old Farmer's Almanac," first published in 1792, continued the tradition.

What astronomers knew about the moon in 1776

By the time the Declaration of Independence was signed, astronomers already understood a surprising amount about Earth's nearest neighbor. More than 160 years earlier, Galileo's telescopic observations had revealed mountains, valleys, and craters on the lunar surface, overturning the ancient notion that heavenly bodies were perfect spheres. Isaac Newton's laws of motion and gravitation had since explained why the moon orbited Earth and why tides occurred.

While astronomers could predict eclipses and chart the moon's movements with impressive accuracy, they had never seen the moon's far side, had no idea how it formed, and couldn't say with confidence what it was made of. All of that would come centuries later — and there are still many lunar unknowns today.

How Apollo astronauts revealed the moon's slow escape

During the Apollo missions, we learned an extraordinary amount of new information about the moon, including the rate at which it's moving away from Earth. Apollo astronauts installed retroreflectors — special mirrors designed to bounce light directly back toward its source—on the lunar surface. Scientists then fired lasers at those reflectors to measure how long it takes the light to return, allowing them to calculate the Earth-moon distance with extraordinary precision. (Fun fact: We continue to use the retroreflectors today!) Those measurements revealed that the moon is receding from Earth at about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) per year.

"The moon's gravity pulls on Earth's oceans, creating a tidal bulge," says McGowan. "Because Earth rotates faster than the moon orbits us, that ocean bulge pulls slightly ahead of the moon, acting like a cosmic gravitational leash that accelerates the moon into a higher, wider orbit. In doing so, the Earth's rotation slows ever so slightly — about 2.3 milliseconds per century. "Back in 1776, a day on Earth was about 5.75 milliseconds shorter than it is now," says McGowan.

This effect is imperceptible on human timescales, but over millions of years, it will have dramatic consequences. Eventually, the moon will appear too small in Earth's sky to completely cover the sun, ending the era of total solar eclipses and leaving only annular, or "ring of fire," eclipses in their place. The moon will never completely free itself from Earth, though — physics dictates that the drift will stop after about 15 billion years. And well before that, in about 5 billion years, the sun will expand into a red giant, consuming both the Earth and the moon entirely.

Heads up aurora chasers! The sun has been very busy.

After unleashing an X1.1 solar flare on June 30, the sun continued its outburst by firing off 10 M-class solar flares in 24 hours! Several of these eruptions were accompanied by coronal mass ejections (CMEs) that appear to be at least partially Earth-directed.

Exactly how many of these solar storms will reach Earth (and how effective they will be) is still being calculated, but space weather forecasters say the coming days could bring heightened geomagnetic activity and increased chances of seeing the northern lights.

Solar physicist Tamitha Skov described the recent activity as a "Machine-gun sun" in a recent post on X, writing that more than five solar storms are on their way to Earth, with at least three offering "good chances" for aurora displays.

"NOAA and NASA model predictions do not show all the storms yet," Skov wrote, explaining that the rapid succession of eruptions has made them difficult to model. Skov added that the first storm could arrive before 8 a.m. EDT (1200 GMT) on July 3, with G2 or stronger geomagnetic storm conditions possible if the incoming CMEs carry a favorable magnetic orientation, allowing them to connect more efficiently with Earth's magnetic field.

According to NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center, at least one CME from July 1 appears to have an Earth-directed component, although further analysis is still underway. The agency continues to forecast moderate (G2) geomagnetic storm conditions beginning tonight, driven primarily by the CME launched during the June 30 X-class flare, while noting that additional CMEs from the barrage of July 1 eruptions are still being analyzed.

Will the northern lights be visible?

The forecasts are looking increasingly promising for aurora chasers.

NOAA's latest forecast calls for moderate (G2) geomagnetic storm conditions around 8-11 p.m. EDT tonight (0000-0300 GMT July 3), with minor (G1) storm conditions for much of July 3. That could push the northern lights farther south than usual, potentially making them visible across parts of the northern U.S., including New York and Idaho, provided skies are dark and clear.

Exactly how impressive any display becomes will depend on how the incoming CMEs interact with one another and, crucially, the orientation of their magnetic fields when they arrive. When a magnetic field within a solar storm aligns the right way, it can more effectively transfer energy into Earth's magnetic field, producing stronger geomagnetic storms and brighter auroras.

However, nights remain short for observers in the northern hemisphere and lingering twilight could make auroras harder to spot.

That being said, it's worth making sure your cameras are charged and your aurora alerts are switched on. With multiple CMEs heading our way, there could be some natural fireworks lighting up the skies this July 4 weekend.

Northern Hemisphere aurora forecast courtesy of the U.K. Met Office

Steven Spielberg's latest sci-fi movie, Disclosure Day, has finally hit cinemas worldwide. It's been eight years since the iconic director released a movie in this genre, re-entering his UFO era with a twisted alien thriller. To mark his momentous return to sci-fi cinema, we've taken time to gaze across his entire sci-fi slate, ranking them from worst to best.

We use the term 'worst' lightly, though. Spielberg is a movie legend after all. To date, he's directed over 30 films during his illustrious career, crafting spectacular titles with a deep understanding of what it takes to truly tell a story. Frankly, if you don't recognize the nine movies listed here, well, where the devil have you been?

So, hold onto your butts and please enjoy our ranking of Steven Spielberg's sci-fi movies, worst to best.

Honorable mention: Firelight

A short film called Firelight is arguably his inaugural entry into sci-fi cinema, with only a few minutes ever having been publicly released. While we can't place it in the rankings, it must be mentioned as Spielberg was only a teenager at the time, demonstrating his early genius and determination to bring his ideas to life.

9. The Lost World: Jurassic Park

Release date: May 23, 1997 | Cast: Jeff Goldblum, Julianne Moore, Vince Vaughn | Rotten Tomatoes score: 57% critics, 52% audience

Spielberg was riding a real high from the first critically-acclaimed Jurassic Park, so of course there had to be a sequel. Unfortunately, those were some mighty big dinosaur-shaped boots to fill, and The Lost World didn't quite live up to the overwhelming success of its predecessor. Somewhat understandable given how iconic the first movie was. That being said, it's still one of the best Jurassic Park movies ever made. Just not the best.

With Dr. Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) leading the sequel, he leads a team to a second island where dinosaurs roam freely, though a threat jeopardizes their peace. Trying to carve out its own path in the wake of Jurassic Park was a tall order.

It leans more into the horror genre this time around, which gives it a fresh feeling, but The Lost World doesn't quite have the same glimmer and spectacle of the first movie's cast (although Goldblum was certainly a standout character).

8. Disclosure Day

Release date: June 12, 2026 | Cast: Emily Blunt, Josh O'Connor, Colin Firth | Rotten Tomatoes score: 79% critics, 70% audience

After an 8-year hiatus away from the genre, Spielberg finally returned to sci-fi with 2026's Disclosure Day. Was it worth the wait? Eh.

Disclosure Day centers on a conspiracy to cover up the existence of aliens, and it gets a lot of things right. The cast plays their roles to perfection, the dialogue is snappy and witty, and it hits all the right marks aesthetically, but something about it just feels… off.

The central story — following an unlikely duo (Blunt & Connor) on a journey to uncover and reveal the truth to the world — asks you to think, but often falls apart when you do, as you start to notice the string of McGuffins, contrivances, and vapid action scenes stringing it together.

It's an entertaining watch, but nothing more, which is a real shame from a filmmaker of Spielberg's caliber.

7. War of the Worlds

Release date: June 29, 2005 | Cast: Tom Cruise, Dakota Fanning, Tim Robbins | Rotten Tomatoes score: 76% critics, 42% audience

H.G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds practically begged for a movie director with abundant talent to tackle it. Fortunately, Spielberg stepped up to the plate, transforming the short novel into a big-screen masterpiece.

War of the Worlds follows Ray Ferrier (Tom Cruise), a divorced crane operator, who must protect his children from an alien invasion – not your usual setup for a weekend of parental custody! It's epic in proportion and relentless in action, with the narrative underscore of Morgan Freeman's liquid caramel voice setting the tone.

This movie was another return to aliens for Spielberg, although here he opts for their arrival to be even more devastating and unpredictable than in his previous visitations. He finds a great balance between big action and moments of reflection, weaving an ever-building tension throughout the movie that has captivated audiences for over 20 years.

6. A.I. Artificial Intelligence

Release date: June 29, 2001 | Cast: Haley Joel Osment, Jude Law, Brendan Gleeson | Rotten Tomatoes score: 76% critics, 64% audience

Before ChatGPT and Grok, there was David (Haley Joel Osment), an A.I. android child programmed to love.

Initially, Stanley Kubrick was spearheading the movie, but let it go as he felt CGI wouldn't do David's role justice, nor could any child actor. Instead, he handed it over to Spielberg, who believed that a child could.

Taking place in a futuristic world, "A.I. Artificial Intelligence" is a loosely based adaptation of Brian Aldiss' sci-fi short story "Supertoys Last All Summer Long." Young David is adopted into a family who are going through their own parental torture, but he never quite feels at home.

To understand who he truly is, David embarks on a journey that's unbelievably lonely and incredibly daring. It's equal parts moving as it is disturbing, and you'll be left questioning what's morally right and wrong.

5. Ready Player One

Release date: March 29, 2018 | Cast: Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Simon Pegg | Rotten Tomatoes score: 71% critics, 77% audience

Ready Player One is another book adaptation for Spielberg, this time of Ernest Cline's novel of the same name. Welcome to the 2040s, where the virtual reality world OASIS is the place to be… especially if you're someone like orphan Wade Watts, desperately searching for a better life outside of the dystopian hellscape that Earth has become.

When OASIS creator and billionaire James Halliday passes away, his OASIS avatar announces a competition for the ultimate prize – ownership of the digital society itself (and a staggering amount of money, of course). This sends the world into a frenzy, with players, including Wade, determined to win. Including some rather nasty, big corpo bullies who enlist specialist teams to hunt down clues, and other players, too.

With nostalgic odes to musical history and memories of video games woven within, Spielberg works hard to bring Cline's love letter to the 80s to life in a visually captivating and action-packed way. Cline's sequel, Ready Player Two, is reportedly in development, though this time Spielberg is only attached as a producer.

4. Minority Report

Release date: June 21, 2002 | Cast: Tom Cruise, Colin Farrell, Samantha Morton | Rotten Tomatoes score: 89% critics, 80% audience

Though Cruise and Spielberg later worked on War of the Worlds, Minority Report came first and is arguably the better of their collaborations. A crime department in not-so-far-away 2054 predicts crimes before they happen. John Anderton (Tom Cruise) heads up the PreCrime unit and is helped largely by three psychics called Precognitives (Precogs) that they have hooked up in strange spa-like tubs.

It quickly twists into a nightmare for John as his name comes up as a soon-to-be criminal, which prompts him to go on the run to prove his innocence before it's too late. Minority Report is a crime thriller with all kinds of twisted, sci-fi futurism tech from sick sticks to eye-digging robots.

Spielberg adds heart-pounding, sensational chases to craft this true epic, and ironically, it made several predictions about future life that ring eerily true today.

3. Jurassic Park

Release date: June 11, 1993 | Cast: Sam Neill, Laura Dern, Jeff Goldblum | Rotten Tomatoes score: 91% critics, 91% audience

When Spielberg took on the movie adaptation of Michael Crichton's novel "Jurassic Park," he transformed the way we see dinosaurs forever.

With a mix of CGI and animatronics, it found an impressive balance that leapt the genre forward, and it's certainly far more captivating than the Jurassic movie sequels that have come since.

Experts are invited to experience an amusement park built around cloned dinosaurs. What could go wrong? Well, plenty. The stage is set for unbelievable tension and suspense-building, and it's executed perfectly through Spielberg's directorial prowess with memorable scenes from raptors in the kitchen to a T-Rex in the toilet.

It's not only these iconic dinosaur moments that make the movie captivating, but in true Spielberg fashion, it's the conversations and intricate web of personalities, too. And John Williams' legendary film score, too, of course. With dinosaurs, you can fall prey to doing a bit too much. Jurassic Park does just enough.

2. Close Encounters of the Third Kind

Release date: November 16, 1977 | Cast: Richard Dreyfuss, Teri Garr, Melinda Dillon | Rotten Tomatoes score: 91% critics, 85% audience

As we mentioned in the intro, Firelight was a movie that Spielberg made in his teens, shown only within the walls of the Phoenix Little Theatre. Then, in 1977, he took his initial Firelight ideas so much further by crafting Close Encounters of the Third Kind. It's Spielberg's first proper foray into UFOs and what many have dreamed would eventually lead to a spiritual successor in Disclosure Day.

Here we have Roy Neary (Richard Dreyfuss), who has a close encounter of the Third Kind, finding a UFO when working as an electrical lineman. Weirdly, the government won't admit that 'they' exist. Unlike his later work with Disclosure Day, this prompts a journey of discovery rather than one of fear. With budget and belief, Spielberg turned his small-town dreams into a huge production that had a significant impact on the sci-fi cinema landscape.

1. E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial

Release date: June 11, 1982 | Cast: Henry Thomas, Drew Barrymore, Peter Coyote | Rotten Tomatoes score: 99% critics, 72% audience

There's just something so utterly delightful about a child's naivety to dress up an alien they've encountered in a closet in a bid to hide its true identity. And that's not the only whimsy of Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, as it's a beautiful adventure, unravelling the innocence of childhood alongside the curiosity about what's really 'out there.'

Aliens, for the most part, have been portrayed as devastating lifeforms that are a threat to Earth. Even Spielberg is guilty of using this narrative. However, E.T. is the antithesis of this with his Grogu-level of cuteness and gentle nature. Elliott (Henry Thomas) forms an unbreakable bond with E.T that'll make you wonder whether your ingrained fear of aliens is really worth all the worry.

E.T. is one of the best examples of Spielberg's ability to combine emotion with adventure, readjusting our thoughts about life as we know it. Plus, it's got a fantastic musical score to boot. It is, after all, one of the best sci-fi movies of all time.

United Launch Alliance (ULA) launched another batch of Amazon's internet satellites to orbit early Thursday morning (July 2).

An Atlas V rocket carrying 29 Amazon Leo spacecraft lifted off from Florida's Cape Canaveral Space Force Station on Thursday at 12:30 a.m. EDT (0430 GMT).

All of the satellites were successfully deployed in low Earth orbit (LEO) as planned, ULA announced 70 minutes after liftoff.

Amazon Leo is the Amazon's broadband megaconstellation in LEO (hence the name), which will eventually consist of about 3,200 satellites. It will compete with SpaceX's Starlink network, which has nearly 11,000 satellites at present and is growing all the time.

About 400 Amazon Leo craft have reached orbit on a total of 15 missions to date, atop three different rockets — the Atlas V, SpaceX's Falcon 9 and Arianespace's Ariane 6.

The Atlas V has been the most active of this trio, conducting nine of the liftoffs for the megaconstellation, which was originally known as Project Kuiper. (The first of those Atlas V launches lofted two prototype satellites, not operational craft, which explains why Thursday's mission was called Amazon Leo 8 rather than Amazon Leo 9.)

The Atlas V that flew on Amazon Leo 8 was the 551, the most powerful variant of the rocket. The numbers mean that it sports five solid rocket boosters, a 5-meter-wide (16.5 feet) payload fairing and a Centaur upper stage with a single engine.

The 29 Amazon Leo satellites that went up on Thursday weighed a total of about 18 tons, tying the record for the heaviest load ever launched by an Atlas V. That mark was set on the Amazon Leo 5 mission in early April and has been equaled multiple times since.

Editor's note: This story was updated at 2:50 a.m. ET on July 2 with news of successful launch and satellite deployment.

It doesn't get more America than giant rockets and missions to the moon.

That's why NASA painted two giant "America 250" logos on the rocket that launched the Artemis 2 astronauts around the moon earlier this year. The Space Launch System (SLS) rocket lifted off on April 1, carrying the Orion spacecraft to orbit with NASA astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover and Christina Koch, as well as the Canadian Space Agency's Jeremy Hansen.

Their 10-day mission around the moon and back to Earth began with the roaring ignition of SLS's four RS-25 engines and two massive solid rocket boosters (SRBs). Together, they produce 8.8 million pounds (4 million kilograms) of force at liftoff, and lofted the 5.75-million-pounds (2.61 million kg) SLS spaceward on what could be the brightest candle lit for America all year.

Each SRB is integrated into a sectioned stack that stands 177 feet (54 meters) tall on either side of the core SLS booster, which, itself, is supported by the SRBs. With the SRBs securely clamped to the launch pad, SLS hangs in the center between them, held up only by the strength of the interstage bolts at their connection points.

At liftoff, the strength of those bolts gets thrust in the opposite direction. SLS's four RS-25 engines aren't powerful enough to carry the rocket through its initial phase of flight, so the SRBs supply the extra force needed to lift SLS off the launch pad.

The Artemis 2 SLS spent much of 2025 under assembly inside NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The rocket was completed and fully stacked by October last year, but the "America 250" was added later and unveiled on Dec. 2.

The Artemis 2 crew (including Hansen) sported some America 250 swag as well. On their flight suits, each wore a red-outlined patch featuring SLS blasting off toward the moon and Mars above a United States flag and the phrase, in all caps, "THE ROCKET'S RED GLARE," quoting lyrics from the U.S. national anthem.

The patches first made an appearance in January, during the first Artemis 2 SLS rollout from the VAB, and were worn by the crew before, during and after their mission.

"America’s spirit of discovery is alive, and Artemis is carrying it to the moon and beyond," NASA said in a statement after the "America 250" SRB reveal last year.

The space agency is celebrating America in other ways this summer, as well. Check out NASA's America 250 website for a full list of events.

Hot Jupiters are some of the most extreme planets in the universe, blazing gas giants like Jupiter or Saturn that exist so close to their stars that they complete orbits in a matter of days. Now, new research may rewrite the definition of these planets that make the solar system look a little bit mundane.

The extrasolar planet, or exoplanet, at the heart of this rethink is CoRoT-2 b, a world with 3.5 times the mass of Jupiter and 1.5 times the size of our solar system's largest planet, located around 696 light-years away. It orbits its star in just 41 hours or so.

What is so strange about CoRoT-2 b? Most hot Jupiters are tidally locked, meaning they have one side that permanently faces their stars, a "dayside," and a "nightside" that faces out into space in perpetuity. However, a new investigation of CoRoT-2 b seems to show that this hot Jupiter isn't tidally locked, and that is a big surprise, one that challenges all our assumptions about these extreme exoplanets.

"I really like looking at the weird ones — finding planets that don't fit the standard picture — and doing some mystery solving," team leader Aurora Kesseli of the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI) said in a statement.

"Now we can see that a one-size-fits-all model does not work, even for planets that we've been studying for a long time. Every time we look at another hot Jupiter, we learn something new to help refine our models, which are useful for understanding not only hot Jupiters, but for all types of exoplanets."

The cosmic dance of hot Jupiters

For rocky planets, tidal locking would result in an incredibly hot dayside and a much cooler nightside, divided by a perpetual sunset. However, the situation for gas giants is somewhat more complicated because of their swirling atmospheres.

This means while hot Jupiters have day and night sides, they usually possess large hot spots on the dayside, shifted slightly towards the direction of their rotation and their orbit around the host star. CoRoT 2b defies this expectation too, possessing a hotspot in the opposite direction of its orbit. Kesseli and the team investigated three possible reasons for this abnormality.

"The conditions for tidal locking are important for astronomers to understand because the habitable zone for planets around M dwarfs is within the tidal locking zone, where we expect tidal locking to happen pretty quickly," Kesseli said. "The way that a planet rotates greatly affects how the planet distributes its heat, and therefore affects its habitability, so for a planet that is tidally locked, the temperatures, winds, and climates are going to look completely different than those of a planet that is not tidally locked."

Measuring the velocity of CoRoT-2 b, Kesseli and colleagues found that one day on this hot Jupiter is about three Earth days, which is almost twice as long as its year which lasts around 1.5 Earth days. This means that its day is much shorter than its year; by the time CoRoT-2 b completes one rotation, it has made almost two orbits of its parent star.
"I was very pleasantly surprised when I tried a bunch of methods, and I was like, 'Aha! This is actually like one of the three hypotheses!' Seeing the data pretty clearly pointing towards one of them was just really exciting," Kesseli said.

The next step for Kesseli is to discover what is causing the slow rotation of CoRoT-2 b.

"Hot Jupiters are the first type of planet where we have been able to really explore and refine our models of their climates," said Kesseli. "With the next generation of telescopes like the Habitable Worlds Observatory and the Extremely Large Telescope, we’ll be able to do more in-depth measurements across more planets, maybe even potentially habitable ones."

The team's research was presented at the 248th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Pasadena, California, and has been published on the paper repository site arXiv.

If the number of satellites in Earth's orbit exceeds 100,000, humanity may lose its ability to study the universe from the planet's surface.

That's the conclusion of a study conducted by astronomers from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) which warns that if existing plans to deploy a million orbiting data centers and tens of thousands sun-reflecting mirrors were to come to fruition, the world's most cutting-edge astronomical telescopes may as well be mothballed.

"We can reach conditions where basically, there is no point in operating the telescopes anymore because all the data will be corrupted. All. 100 percent," Olivier Hainaut, the director of operations at ESO and lead author of the study, told Space.com.

Hainaut used computer modelling to understand the effect of varying numbers of satellites of different brightness levels on astronomical observations. The modelling showed that if 100,000 satellites were to orbit the planet and all were barely visible to the naked eye, astronomy could cope. If those satellites were brighter, however, around magnitude 7 or below in astronomical terms, astronomical research would become more difficult and costly.

Satellites affect the sky in two ways. Firstly, the sunlight they reflect increases the overall brightness of the sky, creating light pollution. Second, brighter satellites also create streaks in telescope images that mar observations.

"If you increase the light pollution, it means that you will see fewer natural stars and you will see more of these satellites," said Hainaut . "For telescopes that means increasing exposure times. If you have a 10 percent increase in light pollution, you have to increase all the exposure times by 10 percent. It scales directly. For a 100 percent increase in light pollution, you have to increase all the exposures by 100 percent."

The exposure time increases mean that less science gets done and every observation becomes more expensive. The International Astronomical Union says that an increase in light pollution by more than 10 percent compared to natural dark sky conditions is an astronomy killer.

As light pollution has spread with urban development over the past two centuries, astronomers have increasingly been retreating into ever more remote locations. Many of the world's most expensive telescopes, including the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and the ESO's Very Large Telescope and Extremely Large Telescope, are located in Chile's Atacama Desert where the night sky is still nearly perfectly dark.

But while it is possible to retreat from the city lights, there will be no escape from satellite light pollution, Hainaut warns. You may be visiting a tiny village in Africa, camping in the Australian outback, or on an expedition to Antarctica or the Amazon rain forest, and your sky would still be brightened by the satellites.

"What they propose would make our observations close to impossible"

What is worse, if plans to launch thousands of sun-reflecting mirrors, as proposed by the U.S. company Reflect Orbital, were to come to fruition, the sky would transform completely.

Headquartered in Hawthorne, California, Reflect Orbital's vision is to deliver light on demand to solar power plants at night and to illuminate warzones and areas struck by natural disasters. The company has applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to launch a demonstration space mirror into orbit later this year.

The satellite, called Eärendil-1, is 59 by 59 feet (18 by 18 meters) in size, and should be the first in a constellation of 50,000, if things were to go according to Reflect Orbital's plan. "Reflect Orbital is really bad," said Hainaut.

"What they propose would make our observations close to impossible.
These are super bright satellites."

Astronomers have calculated that each Reflect Orbital space mirror would be brighter than the full moon if observed from the area where its beam is aiming. But the satellites would be visible regardless of where their beams are aiming to everybody around the world.

"Even outside the beam, the satellite will appear brighter than the planet Venus, which is the brightest object in the night sky after the moon," said Hainaut. "If they were to launch 50,000 of these space mirrors, there would be many hundred or even a few thousand of these super bright objects visible to observers anywhere on Earth."

Reflect Orbital, meanwhile, says that they have been engaging with the astronomy community throughout the company's development and that the company is currently commissioning independent, third-party research on the impacts of their satellites.

"Every spot of light we deliver will be requested, approved and contained," a company spokesperson told Space.com. "We will only provide redirected sunlight when it is signed off by the appropriate authorities in the relevant jurisdiction."

Today, in areas with relatively low levels of light pollution, one can only see a few hundred bright stars in the sky. That means there would be more satellites than stars visible in the sky anywhere in the world with the full Reflect Orbital constellation in orbit. The constellation would also brighten the night sky by up to 300 percent, Hanuit calculated.

"If you increase the light pollution, it means that you will see fewer natural stars," said Hainaut. "And you will see more of these satellites."

Hainaut said that SpaceX's planned orbital data centers, despite the fact that they feature 230-foot-wide (70 m) solar panels, would be much dimmer and about as visible as Starlink satellites.

"From the available information, we see that these satellites have been optimized to minimize the impact as seen from the ground," Hainaut said. "The reflective surfaces are tilted away from Earth and the satellite itself is very narrow, pointing to Earth with its small end."

Still, overall, satellites operated by all operators around the world should remain below 100,000 satellites combined if astronomy is not to suffer, scientists caution. SpaceX is currently awaiting FCC's decision on its application to launch one million orbital data centers.

Currently, some 14,000 satellites orbit the planet.

"For astronomy, this would obviously be catastrophic."

Robert Massey, the Deputy Executive Director of the Royal Astronomical Society, said Hainaut's findings were "not hugely surprising."

"For astronomy, this would obviously be catastrophic," Massey told Space.com. "It's very difficult to imagine how you could mitigate that on this scale. But I am also concerned about the public impact. The public has not signed up for having an entirely transformed sky."

Massey pointed out that based on the international law governing space activities, it is perfectly legal for a U.S. organization to be single-handedly deciding on something that would impact the entire world.

"If it's agreed by the FCC, this will be deeply regrettable," Massey said. "This will say that we are in a world where large corporations can determine the view of the sky above our heads, just as they can transform the environment on Earth. But the transformation of the environment on Earth is subject to pretty tight regulations."

The Trump administration has been taking steps to reduce the burden for satellite operators to prove their projects will have no negative environmental impacts. Currently, no environmental review has to be undertaken by the FCC or private companies before satellite applications go for approval.

Betty Kioko, an institutional affairs adviser at ESO, said the United Nations Outer Space Treaty, signed in 1967, states that the responsibility for space launches is with the nation states where those space objects are registered. She, however, added that the Treaty requires states to use space "for the common good of humankind."

"We now have to wait for the FCC to decide, because ultimately, the Outer Space Treaty was written at a time before we envisioned access to space by private entities."

ESO is among hundreds of organizations from around the world that have filed objections to the SpaceX and Reflect Orbital applications.

The study has been published in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics.

Editor's note: This story was updated on July 2 to include comments from a Reflect Orbital spokesperson.

The three-planet evening show that graced June's twilight sky has now dwindled to one lone survivor.

Mercury and Jupiter are now swinging behind the sun and are lost in the bright solar glare. Only Venus remains evident after sunset, and even here the dazzling evening star itself is showing subtle signs of slowly dropping down into the sunset fires; it is getting noticeably lower in the western sky with each passing week. It will pass close to the brightest star in Leo the Lion, Regulus, during the second week of July.

Saturn is in a fine position to be viewed just before the break of dawn in the east-southeast. The famous rings are now tilted some 9 degrees toward Earth, once again making this planet a showpiece for telescopic observation.

Mars rises about 2.5 hours before sunrise but is ever-so-slowly becoming more conspicuous as it brightens while climbing a bit higher in the eastern sky. It will also serve as a benchmark to locate the much fainter planet Uranus early on the morning of July 4; this distant greenish world will then be positioned only about 7 arcminutes (less than one-quarter of the apparent width of the moon) above Mars. Certainly, if you have never seen Uranus before, this will be an excellent opportunity to sight it, either with a small telescope or binoculars, or even possibly with your unaided eyes.

In our schedule, remember that when measuring the angular separation between two celestial objects, your clenched fist held at arm's length measures roughly 10 degrees. Here's where and when to look for each planet during July.

Mercury

Mercury passes inferior conjunction and enters the morning sky on July 12. It's too low and dim to detect until about July 26 or maybe later. By Aug. 2, Mercury will reach a greatest western elongation of 19 degrees from the sun.

Venus

Venus is conspicuous as July's long evening twilights fade. If you live at mid-northern latitudes and look to the west about 45 minutes after sunset, you'll find Venus shining brightly about 15 degrees high this month. This is noticeably lower than it was in June.

The planet starts July by setting more than two hours after the sun and follows the sun down to the horizon somewhat sooner by month's end. Venus is still rather small in a telescope this month, but there's no doubt that it has a gibbous phase. It will be larger in apparent diameter but smaller in phase, down to about half lit, when it reaches greatest elongation from the sun in mid-August.

On July 9, you will notice a much dimmer but still reasonably prominent point of light near Venus: the bluish 1st magnitude star Regulus. Venus burns only 1 degree to the upper right of Regulus, which is 150 times fainter. They're less than 3 degrees apart from July 7 through July 12. On July 17, the 3.5-day-old crescent moon will sit 5.5 degrees to the left of Venus.

Earth

Earth reaches aphelion, its farthest point from the sun in its orbit, on July 6 at 1:30 p.m. EDT (1730 GMT). Our planet is then 94,502,962 miles (152,087,775 km) from the sun (measured center to center), which is 3.28% farther from the sun than we were at perihelion last Jan. 3; a change of only one part in 30.

Mars

Mars rises around 2:50 a.m. local daylight time and is positioned between the Hyades and Pleiades star clusters, low in the east-northeast sky by dawn. At magnitude +1.3, it remains rather inconspicuous, but its luminosity continues to increase as we gain on it in our smaller, faster orbit.

On Independence Day morning (July 4), Mars points the way to Uranus, which is only 1/63 as bright. But with good binoculars or a small telescope, this distant world should appear like a tiny greenish star, hovering just 0.1 degree above Mars. Uranus is 168 light-minutes from Earth and more than 9½ times farther than Mars.

On the morning of July 11, about 90 minutes before sunrise, look low toward the east-northeast horizon to see a waning crescent moon. About 5 degrees below it, you'll find Mars and about the same distance below the Red Planet, you'll find a similarly hued and somewhat brighter star, orange Aldebaran in Taurus the Bull.

Jupiter

Jupiter comes to conjunction with the sun on July 29; it's on the far side of the sun during July and can't be seen.

Saturn

Saturn comes up in the east around 1 a.m. local time at the beginning of July and 11 p.m. at month's end. It's located near the border separating the constellations Pisces and Cetus. By month's end, the rings are tilted 9.1 degrees from horizontal — their greatest tilt of the year. Early on the morning of July 7, you'll find Saturn mimicking a bright star shining with a sedate yellow-white hue, sitting well to the lower left of the moon.

Joe Rao serves as an instructor and guest lecturer at New York's Hayden Planetarium. He writes about astronomy for Natural History magazine, Sky and Telescope, The Old Farmer's Almanac and other publications.

Jared Isaacman is doing his best to spur his country on to sporting glory.

The NASA chief announced on Tuesday (June 30) that the agency will send a FIFA World Cup 2026 soccer ball to the moon if the U.S. men's national team manages to win the tournament, which is going on right now.

"So, a little bit of motivation for the United States here on this one," Isaacman said during a livestreamed press event on Tuesday. "We're going to one-up Alan Shepard in the golf game on the lunar surface, and we're going to get the soccer ball there."

Shepard famously smuggled two golf balls and an improvised club onto the Apollo 14 mission, which he commanded. On Feb. 6, 1971, the NASA astronaut hit those balls on the moon, becoming the first person ever to play a sport on another world.

The soccer-ball plan, by contrast, would be a sanctioned affair; Isaacman and Carlos García-Galán, manager of NASA's Moon Base program, are both behind it.

"I don't know which lander it'll wind up going in," Isaacman said during Tuesday's event, the second of the agency's monthly updates about its plans to build a crewed outpost near the lunar south pole via its Artemis program.

Turning to García-Galán, he added, "I'll leave that to you guys, to handle the payload."

"We will take on that challenge," García-Galán replied. "It will be super exciting to do that if they win. Good luck."

The U.S. men's team will probably need some luck to win the World Cup, an every-four-year event that's currently being jointly hosted by the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The American men have won just two knockout-round games in the entire history of the tournament, and one of those came in 1930, during the first-ever World Cup.

The 2026 team has performed better than most of its predecessors to this point, however; the Americans won their four-team group to advance to the single-elimination stage, beating both Paraguay and Australia before losing a meaningless game to Turkiye. (The U.S. had already clinched the group win at that point.)

The U.S. plays Bosnia-Herzegovina in a Round of 32 match on Wednesday (July 1). To hoist the World Cup trophy, the Americans would have to win that game, then four more after that, likely against some perennial soccer powers.

If they make it to the quarterfinals, for example, they'll likely face Spain, which won the World Cup in 2010 — a potential matchup flagged by García-Galán, who's from Málaga.

The U.S. women's soccer team has enjoyed a great deal more success at the international level, winning four of the nine FIFA Women's World Cups to date. (The women's tournament, which is also held every four years, was first played in 1991.)

A moon mission wouldn't be the first trip off Earth for the official FIFA World Cup 2026 soccer ball. NASA also sent one of the balls to the International Space Station, where astronauts played with it in the Kibo module.

"We're working to inspire the next generation by showing how space exploration inspires innovation in sports science — and everyday life," the agency said via X on June 20, in a post that included video of the off-Earth action.

Wildfires across the globe can be seen all the way from space. And one unexpected tool has come in handy to spot plumes of wildfire smoke: a satellite designed to study Earth's oceans.

What is it?

In this photo, we can see swirls of wildfire smoke over the Great Lakes in Canada. Fluffy white clouds float over the land and lakes, in contrast to the wisps of gray smoke, which float out from massive wildfires that ripped through North America.

The photo was snapped in May of last year by NASA's PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, and ocean Ecosystem) satellite. This seems logical, as it is an Earth-monitoring satellite, but what's surprising is that the orbiting spacecraft was actually designed to study and monitor Earth's oceans and atmosphere. In fact, the image itself was captured by PACE's Ocean Color Instrument, which does "hyperspectral" imaging, meaning that it observes the planet in hundreds of different wavelengths of light (in visible, near-infrared and ultraviolet).

Why is it incredible?

This image, among others, shows the incredible versatility of space technologies like PACE. While wildfire monitoring isn't its explicit purpose, images and data from this mission could be incredibly helpful in deepening our understanding of wildfires and how they spread.

"The PACE satellite observes land too, and does it really well," Skye Caplan, terrestrial lead for the PACE mission at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, said in a statement. "There is so much to explore with a new hyperspectral data set."

In fact, in addition to capturing wildfire smoke, as we can see in this image, PACE's Ocean Color Instrument can also spot changes in vegetation, burn scars and the charred aftermath of a wildfire. Images in the instrument's hundreds of wavelengths can reveal a variety of detailed information, such as how stressed, dry or even pigmented plants are on Earth's surface. This type of information could also be beneficial in identifying dry areas that could be at a higher risk of wildfires sparking.

NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory has released four stunning images of cosmic wonders, depicted in red, white and blue to coincide with the United States' 250th anniversary on July 4.

The four images reveal superheated gas in a distant galaxy cluster, the swirling spiral galaxy known as Messier 94, a glowing nebula found in our own Milky Way galaxy, and the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant, respectively.

Along with the colorful cosmic images, the Chandra team produced sonifications in which the data collected by the powerful X-ray telescope was translated into sound. In this case, the sonifications turn these images into celestial music, mapping X-ray data into different audio frequencies and musical instrument sounds.

Galaxy cluster ZwCl 0024+1652

In this image, the galaxy cluster ZwCl 0024+1652 comes alive in vibrant blues and reds. The red in the image is produced from X-ray data collected by Chandra, revealing vast amounts of superheated gas surrounding these galaxies, found some 4 billion light-years from Earth in the Pisces constellation.

This image combines X-ray data from Chandra along with optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope, depicted here in blue. The Hubble data reveals the presence of dark matter, according to a statement from NASA.

Because dark matter does not interact with light, astronomers can't image it directly; its presence can be detected through the gravitational influence it has on surrounding matter that does interact with light.

Messier 94

Chandra also peered deep into the 'eye' of the spiral galaxy Messier 94 (M94, or NGC 4736), sometimes colloquially referred to as the Cat's Eye Galaxy. This galaxy is found some 16 million light-years away in the constellation Canes Venatici, the "Hunting Dogs."

In this swirling image, X-ray data collected in space by Chandra was combined with visible light photography taken by telescopes here on Earth. The images show the distinctive inner region of Messier 94, known as a starburst ring, in which new stars are being born.

M94 is also notable for its curious lack of dark matter, according to NASA. "Astronomers do not know why it lacks the normal amount of dark matter, but the galaxy has been the subject of extensive study as a result," the agency wrote in a statement.

Nebula NGC 3603

This image combines X-ray data from Chandra with optical, infrared, and ultraviolet light from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to reveal the twinkling cluster of gases and thousands of stars known as NGC 3603.

This nebula, found in our own Milky Way galaxy, is a vast region of gas and dust surrounding a dense concentration of massive stars. NGC 3603 is located 20,000 light-years away from our solar system in the Carina constellation, a Southern Hemisphere constellation named after the Latin word for a ship's keel.

NGC 3603 contains some of the most massive stars in the known universe, according to NASA. "These huge stars live fast and die young, burning through their hydrogen fuel quickly and ultimately ending their lives in supernova explosions," the agency pointed out in a prior statement about the nebula.

Cassiopeia A

When some stars die, they explode in massive events known as supernovas. The light from one of the most well-known examples of a supernova reached Earth in the 17th century, appearing as a bright point of light in the Cassiopeia constellation. But because this exploded star is located some 11,000 light-years away from Earth, it means that the supernova actually occurred over 10,000 years ago, according to NASA.

Today, the leftover gases from that supernova are known as Cassiopeia A. Astronomers believe the star that produced the supernova was somewhere in the neighborhood of 15 to 25 times more massive than the sun.

In the image below, Chandra's X-ray data was combined with infrared light gathered by the James Webb Space Telescope to help visualize the luminous shell of gas in reds, whites and blues.

Over the past 250 years, the number of "planets" in our solar system has ranged from six to nine — and, briefly, even 11 — depending on what astronomers knew at the time and how they defined a planet. As the United States prepares to celebrate its 250th anniversary, that changing tally offers a unique lens on humanity's evolving understanding of the cosmos since 1776.

Throughout history, astronomers have discovered new worlds, identified entirely new classes of celestial objects and repeatedly revised the very definition of a planet. The result is a surprisingly complicated answer to one of astronomy's most basic questions: How many planets are there in our solar system?

"The change in the number of recognized planets well represents how science is done," Kevin Schindler, historian and public information officer at Lowell Observatory, told Space.com. "Scientists discover something — a planet, dinosaur fossil, or beetle, for example — study it and classify it. With further study, and by studying more examples, scientists learn more and update their understanding of the thing, sometimes reclassifying it."

When the United States declared independence in 1776, astronomers recognized just six planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. That changed only five years later when William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, expanding the known solar system and increasing the planet count to seven.

The tally grew again in 1801 with the discovery of Ceres, a world orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. Three similar objects were found soon afterward, and for a time astronomers considered all of them planets, briefly bringing the total to 11. However, as additional objects were discovered, scientists realized they represented a distinct population and those objects were reclassified as asteroids, reducing the planet count down to seven, Schindler explained.

Neptune's discovery in 1846 raised the total to eight, while Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto at Lowell Observatory in 1930 established the familiar nine-planet solar system. This changing planet count underscores a broader pattern in humanity's journey of exploration and discovery over the past 250 years.

"I think it shows that exploration and the thirst to understand the universe around us is ingrained in us, it's part of our DNA and we continue to want to learn," Schindler said. "Our founding fathers established the United States based on scientific principles such as reason and logic, observation, evidence-based analysis, and openness to debate different points of view and be open to change."

For much of the 20th century, the answer seemed settled: The solar system had nine planets. However, beginning in the late 1950s, advancing spacecraft technology allowed scientists to study planets, moons and smaller bodies up close, revealing worlds far more diverse and dynamic than could be seen through telescopes alone. Then, in the early 1990s, astronomers began discovering a growing population of icy worlds beyond Neptune.

"The discovery of Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs) — numerous objects similar to Pluto but with orbits extending much farther away from the sun — tells us a lot about our 'local' environment," astronomer Kyler Kuehn, director of science, technology and operations at Lowell Observatory, told Space.com in an email, emphasizing the impact discovering TNOs has had on the classification of Pluto.

"While Pluto was the first TNO to be discovered, the fact that there could be millions of similar objects populating the outskirts of the solar system naturally leads to the question 'Why should we treat Pluto differently than any of the others?'" Kuehn said.

The growing number of TNO discoveries ultimately established that Pluto was part of the Kuiper Belt, a vast reservoir of icy bodies extending beyond Neptune's orbit. As a result, Pluto was no longer viewed as a unique outlier, but rather one member of a much larger population. This dramatically reshaped astronomers' understanding of the solar system, exposing a far more complex outer frontier than anyone in 1776 could have imagined.

"It doesn't fit into the relatively tidy structure of the solar system as understood in 1776," Schindler said. For 18th-century astronomers, "it likely wouldn't be a surprise to find new planets or a new class of planet-like bodies (asteroids), but the discovery of an entire new zone of bodies, which was more [chaotic], probably would have been a surprise, showing that the solar system is not nearly as tidy and stable as believed."

The debate surrounding Pluto's classification culminated in 2006, when the International Astronomical Union adopted a formal definition of a planet. Under that definition, a planet must orbit the sun, be massive enough to become nearly round under its own gravity and have "cleared the neighborhood" around its orbit. While Pluto met the first two requirements, it did not meet the third and was reclassified as a dwarf planet, dropping the official planet count from nine back down to eight.

Controversy over Pluto's classification continues today. Schindler said scientists who oppose Pluto's planethood typically favor a dynamical definition focused on how a body interacts with and dominates its orbital environment. Meanwhile, those who favor Pluto's return to planetary status generally support a geophysical definition based on an object's physical properties. In fact, Pluto's 2015 flyby by NASA's New Horizons spacecraft further fueled the debate by revealing a surprisingly complex world with mountains, glaciers and active geology.

"There has not been any resolution between the two sides," Schindler said, noting that public interest has also helped keep the debate alive.

Most recently, NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman added his voice to the conversation by saying he believes Pluto should once again be considered a planet and that the scientific community should revisit its classification.

"Arguing about the technical definition of 'planet' doesn't actually change anything about the (dwarf) planet itself, but how we classify things can be extremely important to the kinds of questions we even think to ask, " Kuehn added. "Scientific definitions have changed and will continue to change over the course of decades and centuries as we learn more."

The changing planet count demonstrates the foundations of how science works. Schindler compared Pluto's reclassification to the dinosaur Brontosaurus, which was renamed Apatosaurus after further study before later regaining its original classification as scientists refined their understanding.

Therefore, future discoveries, both within our solar system and beyond it, could further reshape scientists' understanding of planetary systems and how planets are classified.

"That might lead us to a more useful definition of planet than anything we are even considering now," Kuehn said. Looking forward, "I think we will learn a lot more about the extreme edges of our solar system — we have barely scratched the surface."

Two hundred and fifty years ago, astronomers knew of only six planets. Today, the official count in our solar system stands at eight, as the debate continues over whether that number tells the whole story.

As the United States marks its 250th anniversary, the changing planet count serves as a reminder that discovery is never finished. Every new observation has the potential to reshape our understanding of the cosmos — just as it has since America's founding — and perhaps even change the answer to one of astronomy's oldest questions: How many planets are there in our solar system?

A restless Earth-facing sunspot unleashed a powerful X-class solar flare on June 30, triggering radio blackouts across parts of North America.

The X1.1 solar flare erupted from sunspot region AR4479, peaking at 4:50 p.m. EDT (2050 GMT) according to NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center.

The intense burst of X-rays released during the eruption reached Earth in just over 8 minutes, triggering strong (R3) radio blackouts across the daylight side of Earth. This mainly affected high-frequency radio users across parts of North America who may have experienced temporary signal degradation or brief communication outages while the flare was at its strongest.

The eruption also launched a coronal mass ejection (CME) — a huge cloud of magnetized solar plasma hurled into space. Initial observations suggested most of the material was traveling northward, limiting the chances of a significant Earth impact.

However, after further analysis, NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center issued a Moderate (G2) geomagnetic storm watch for July 3, indicating that at least part of the CME could land Earth with a significant blow.

Will we see the northern lights?

When Earth-directed, CMEs can interact with our planet's magnetic field and spark geomagnetic storms, which can produce dazzling northern lights displays.

A G2-level storm is capable of pushing the northern lights farther south than normal. According to NOAA, auroras could become visible across some northern and upper Midwestern U.S. states, from New York to Idaho, provided skies are dark and clear.

Exactly how impressive the display becomes will depend on the strength of the CME and, crucially, the orientation of its embedded magnetic field when it arrives. If conditions are favorable, the natural light show could provide an extra helping of "fireworks" just in time for the July 4 weekend.

What are solar flares?

Solar flares are sudden bursts of energy released when magnetic fields around sunspots become twisted and reconnect. They are ranked using five classes — A, B, C, M and X — with X-class flares representing the most powerful eruptions.

What are CMEs?

CMEs behave a little differently. Unlike the radiation from a solar flare, which reaches Earth at the speed of light, these clouds of charged particles typically take one to three days to reach us. If they arrive in the right magnetic orientation, they can disturb Earth's magnetic field and trigger geomagnetic storm conditions.

Editor's note: This story was updated at 9:30 a.m. EDT on July 1 to reflect NOAA's latest forecast, including the issuance of a G2 (Moderate) geomagnetic storm watch for July 3 following further analysis of the accompanying coronal mass ejection.

It's unclear when Boeing will be able to send more astronauts to the International Space Station, a new NASA audit warns.

Technical issues with Boeing Starliner's spacecraft, across two uncrewed flights and a two-astronaut test mission known as Crew Flight Test (CFT), come under scrutiny in a new report about NASA's Commercial Crew Program from the agency's Office of the Inspector General (OIG).

"Many of these [Starliner] issues are related to three longstanding technical challenges that have prevented Boeing from obtaining the human-rating certification — helium leaks, propulsion systems failures and parachute anomalies," states the OIG report, which was released today (June 30).

"The helium leaks and propulsion systems failures remain unresolved as of March 2026, and NASA is uncertain as to when this testing will be completed or human-rating certification for the Starliner will be obtained," the report adds.

The NASA OIG performed the audit to evaluate the performance of both companies that NASA contracted to fly astronauts to and from the International Space Station (ISS). The auditor found that NASA will need to purchase more flights from those vendors, SpaceX and Boeing, "to continue to fully crew the ISS through 2030," and offered feedback on how the two companies have been doing so far.

SpaceX has been flying astronauts successfully since 2020 and is readying to send its 13th operational crewed mission (known as Crew-13) to the orbiting complex in September. Boeing, however, has just one astronaut flight under its belt — CFT, which launched in June 2024 and encountered multiple problems, resulting in NASA having to bring the two astronauts back home on a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule instead of Starliner.

Starliner has therefore not been certified to fly astronauts yet. The company has decided that the capsule's next mission will be uncrewed, and there is not yet a launch date for it.

NASA ultimately reclassified Starliner's first crewed flight as a Type A mishap, the most serious type in human spaceflight, in February 2026. The fact that it took 21 months for the agency to do so is concerning, according to both the OIG and the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel for NASA.

OIG said "ambiguity" in NASA requirements for a Type A mishap led to this gap, which also induced "delays, increased costs and potential performance and safety issues on future flights," according to the new report.

The authors added that underperformance on CFT can be traced to NASA's overconfidence in the spacecraft design, "unrealistic launch and flight test schedules" made by Boeing and accepted by NASA, and "pressure to adhere to this aggressive schedule." And these issues were compounded by NASA not exercising "data rights," which would have let the agency look at "flight-simulation-training failures" that likely would have helped with crew safety ahead of launch.

"Going forward, NASA's ongoing workforce constraints may further hinder oversight, resolution of technical issues, and flight certification schedules," the OIG report states, alluding to effects that the auditor foresees from budget-related workforce cutbacks at NASA.

The bulk of the report discusses Starliner, but SpaceX also had "a variety of its own technical challenges" in the earlier days of the Dragon program, OIG noted. That said, SpaceX has helped NASA deal with Boeing's delays, while collecting "$17 million in additional costs to accelerate spaceflights originally planned for the Starliner," the OIG noted.

NASA concurred with all of OIG's recommendations to the agency going forward, which are:

• Delay payments to Boeing until Starliner's human-rating certification completes;
• Create a schedule with Boeing for the next Starliner flights;
• Document and resolve all of the CFT issues in "NASA's mishap information system" and update the schedule for Starliner with these issues in mind;
• Make private company flight-simulation testing on hardware and software changes accessible to NASA;
• Make NASA's mishap-classification requirements more clear;
• Prioritize NASA hiring efforts to focus on "critical skillsets" related to commercial crew and to the expected decommissioning of the ISS.

NASA provided an Artemis update today (June 30), announcing new lunar landing contracts for its Moon Base initiative and a surprise new possible rover mission that could be headed to the moon's south pole.

During the second monthly update that NASA has provided for its moon base plans, the agency named Astrobotic, Firefly Aerospace and Intuitive Machines as the providers of four robotic landers that will deliver scientific payloads to the surface of the moon, as NASA tests and expands the technologies needed for a permanent human outpost.

"This is this drawing on the playbook that worked very well for NASA during the 1960s," NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman said during the livestreamed update, explaining the experiential approach to a crewed lunar return. "We didn't just jump right to Apollo 11."

Isaacman also announced the potential repurposing of an engineering development model built to mirror the agency's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers on Mars. "There is another," Isaacman said, quoting Yoda's line from "Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back."

That test rover is called PROMISE, short for "Polar Rover for Observation, Mapping, and In-Situ Exploration" (though it was formerly known as Optimism). PROMISE was developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Southern California, where it has been used as a test platform for fixes or commands that engineers want to try on the ground before permanently sending them to Perseverance and Curiosity. Now, NASA wants to send PROMISE on a mission of its own.

Though sending PROMISE to the moon would leave Perseverance and Curiosity — both of which remain active on Mars — without an Earth-based testbed, Isaacman thinks it would be worth it.

"We've had years now of experience operating the two rovers on the surface of Mars, and we've got this hardware that the taxpayers have invested a lot in," he said. "So the question was posed: 'What if we send it to the moon?'"

With a little refurbishment, PROMISE would help advance NASA's lunar plans, Isaacman added. Like Perseverance and Curiosity, the test rover is powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), which converts heat from naturally decaying radioactive material into electricity. So it wouldn't require sunlight to operate — a real benefit on the moon, where most locations experience long stretches of darkness. (NASA plans to build its Artemis base near the moon's south pole, which is thought to harbor an abundance of water ice and also has a relatively complex lighting environment.)

The other robots currently in the works to launch on future missions to the moon, including the landers announced during today's update, are all solar powered. Through 2029, NASA hopes to launch up to 20 such missions as part of the CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative to support the first phase of the agency's moon base plans, and the landers announced today will be some of the first in that lineup.

Already expected this year was Blue Origin's Blue Moon Mark 1 cargo lander. It's slated to launch on the company's New Glenn rocket, which exploded last month during an engine test. That anomaly has complicated the Blue Moon timeline, though Blue Origin CEO Dave Limp has voiced confidence that New Glenn will launch again this year.

Two lunar deliveries were awarded to Astrobotic's Griffin 1 lander, one of which will fly Astrolab's FLIP rover the surface of the moon in the second half of 2026. Contracts to Firefly and Intuitive Machines call for the use of their Blue Ghost and Nova C landers, respectively, on CLPS missions in the next few years.

Each CLPS lander mission will carry at least three NASA payloads. The Stereo Camera for Lunar Plume Surface Studies (SCALPSS) array will study lander engine exhaust plume effects on lunar dust, to better predict landing requirements and prevent erosion and dangerous ejecta; a Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) will test landers' ability to determine positioning and navigate using lasers and reflectors; and a Linear Energy Transfer Spectrometer (LETS) will measure radiation in the space around the moon and different areas on its surface.

"We know a lot about the moon, some of the south pole, but nothing like what we need to learn before we send humans there and we actually build a moon base," Carlos Garcia-Golan, NASA's Moon Base program manager, said during today's event. "So putting different assets on the surface, prospecting, understanding the environment and the places where we want to go [is] super critical."

Garcia-Golan is on board with the PROMISE moon plan as well. While it might sound crazy to send a spare Mars rover to the moon, it's the kind of crazy that NASA should be doing, he said. After all, JPL's motto is "Dare mighty things."

"We are in the business of the near impossible, so why not?" Garcia-Golan said.

Update for 11 p.m. ET on June 30: Rocket Lab tried to launch "The Grain Goddess Provides" mission at 9 p.m. EDT on June 30 but aborted the attempt at the last second. It's unclear at the moment what caused the abort or when the company will try to fly again.

Rocket Lab will launch a Japanese Earth-observing radar satellite to orbit tonight (June 30), and you can watch the action live.

An Electron rocket carrying the QPS-SAR-13 satellite is scheduled to lift off from Rocket Lab's New Zealand site tonight at 9 p.m. EDT (0100 GMT and 1 p.m. local New Zealand time on July 1).

You can watch the launch live here at Space.com courtesy of Rocket Lab, or directly via the company. Coverage will begin about 30 minutes before liftoff.

Japan-based iQPS is building a constellation of 36 satellites in low Earth orbit that study Earth using high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR). SAR spacecraft can peer through clouds and gather data at night as well as during the day.

Tonight's launch, which Rocket Lab calls "The Grain Goddess Provides," will be the eighth, out of a total of 15, that it will perform to assemble iQPS' constellation.

If all goes according to plan tonight, Electron will deploy the iQPS satellite — which is nicknamed Mikura-I, after a Japanese goddess associated with abundance and prosperity — about 50 minutes after liftoff, into a circular orbit 357 miles (575 kilometers) above Earth.

"The Grain Goddess Provides" will be Rocket Lab's 92nd mission to date and its 13th of 2026 already. The vast majority of these launches have involved the 59-foot-tall (18-meter-tall) Electron, which gives small satellites dedicated rides to orbit. A small number have been performed by HASTE , a suborbital version of Electron that helps customers test hypersonic technologies.

Tonight's launch will come just a day after Rocket Lab made a big business move: On Monday (June 29), Rocket Lab announced that it's acquiring the communications company Iridium for $8 billion.

"By combining our launch capability and satellite manufacturing with @IridiumComm’s global satellite communications network and rare spectrum, Rocket Lab becomes a fully integrated, self-launching, tier-1 space power, delivering critical communications capability to millions of users worldwide," Rocket Lab said via X on Monday.

Blue Origin has started rebuilding the launch pad damaged by an explosive accident last month, but the company is working from a very different blueprint this time around.

The company's huge New Glenn rocket exploded on May 28 during a routine engine test at Launch Complex 36A (LC-36A) at Florida's Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. The rocket was destroyed, as were some important pieces of pad infrastructure, including the lightning tower and the transporter-erector, which hauled New Glenn from its integration facility to the pad and raised it vertical upon arrival.

Blue Origin has vowed to bounce back quickly, aiming to fly the 320-foot-tall (98-meter) New Glenn again by the end of the year. Getting LC-36A rebuilt is a high priority, for the pad is currently New Glenn's only jumping-off point. And Blue Origin has made significant progress on this front the company announced today (June 30).

"Hardware recovery and debris removal operations are complete, and reconstruction of the pad has started," the company's CEO, Dave Limp, said in a statement today.

Reconstruction will not create a facsimile of the original LC-36A, however. Blue Origin is building a new version of the pad, one that lines up with a new concept of operations (ConOps) for New Glenn launches.

"We're moving to a horizontal/vertical hybrid configuration to get us flying again this year at 36A," Limp said via X today. "Let me explain what that means. We mate the stages horizontally in the Integration Facility (IF). Then we bring the integrated vehicle out to the pad, use a crane to perform the vertical breakover, and mate the payload once New Glenn is vertical. This new ConOps has the added benefit of increasing our flight cadence as well."

So the refurbished LC-36A will have a crane rather than a transporter-erector, and payload mating will occur at the pad rather than inside the IF.

According to Limp, Blue Origin had already been planning to employ this "hybrid" ConOps for the super-heavy version of New Glenn that it's developing, called the 9X4. That name references the engine configuration of the coming vehicle: nine of Blue Origin's BE-4s on its first stage and four BE-3Us in its upper stage.

The current version of New Glenn is a 7X2. It can haul about 50 tons (45 metric tons) of payload to low Earth orbit. The 9X4 will be able to carry 77 tons (70 metric tons) to LEO and will also feature a bigger payload fairing — one that's 28.5 feet (8.7 meters) wide rather than 23 feet (7 m).

Blue Origin had already been developing another Cape Canaveral pad, LC-36B, to accommodate 9X4 launches. That pad is being readied for the "hybrid" ConOps as well, according to Limp.

Today's update also let us know that Blue Origin has made some progress in its investigation into the May 28 anomaly, though more work needs to be done.

"The vehicle is highly instrumented with extensive data from multiple camera angles and sensors, giving us confidence in our ability to identify and correct the root cause," Limp wrote. "Early analysis points to the aft section of the first stage."

Two NASA astronauts gave a robotic arm a hand up — or rather, a replacement wrist joint — during a successful spacewalk outside the International Space Station on Tuesday (June 30).

Chris Williams and Jessica Meir, both flight engineers on the station's Expedition 74 crew, spent seven hours and 20 minutes repairing the Canadarm2 remote manipulator system (RMS) after it was observed drawing current but not moving as expected in late May. The 58-foot-long (18 meters) arm has been in regular use since it was installed on the orbiting outpost in April 2001.

"For over 25 years, the Canadarm2 has been a crucial part of the International Space Station. The arm was key to our orbiting laboratory and continues to be a workhorse that we rely on. Whether it is performing maintenance or replacing equipment, moving and operating payloads, catching cargo vehicles or helping us out during spacewalks, the arm has played and will continue to play an essential role in our work on orbit," Williams said as the spacewalk ended.

"It is also a testament to international cooperation," he added. "Canada, the U.S. and the world have come together to make this program a success. We are honored … that we were able to give the arm a helping hand."

Williams and Meir, each wearing a NASA extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), ventured outside the Quest airlock soon after switching the spacesuits to battery power at 8:20 a.m. EDT (1220 GMT) on Tuesday. They made quick work of transitioning to their work station, where they retrieved a spare wrist joint by using a power tool (pistol grip unit) to unbolt it from an exterior equipment panel.

They then turned their focus to the arm, which was positioned nearby. They removed the old unit and installed the new joint (no. 5), bolting it in place. Williams and Meir brought the faulty joint back into the space station to be returned to Earth for analysis and possible refurbishment.

The astronauts completed their work on the arm by reattaching its latching end effector, or hand, which the arm uses to grapple objects and inchworm across the exterior of the station. Mission Control confirmed that the arm had good power connections after the astronauts' work.

Williams and Meir returned to the Quest airlock and began its depressurization at 3:40 p.m. EDT (1940 GMT), marking an end to the spacewalk.

Tuesday's EVA (extravehicular activity) marked the fourth time in history that spacewalkers have worked to service the Canadarm2. Previously, another wrist joint was replaced and both of the arm's end effectors were swapped out for spares.

"We are thrilled to have repaired the mighty Canadarm2 just in time for Canada Day tomorrow! We hope that all in Canada and everyone around the globe can celebrate this achievement," said Meir.

Expedition 74 flight engineers Jack Hathaway of NASA and Sophie Adenot of the European Space Agency assisted Williams and Meir by helping them to don and doff their spacesuits and maneuvering Canadarm2 into position for the astronauts' repair work.

This was Williams' second spacewalk and the fifth for Meir. Williams has now logged 14 hours and 22 minutes, including a previous EVA with Meir. Meir has totaled 36 hours and 6 minutes, including the first all-female EVA in 2019.

Tuesday's spacewalk was the 280th in support of International Space Station assembly, maintenance, and upgrades since 1998.

Deep oceans of magma once sloshed about inside the crust of Mars, seismic measurements taken by NASA's InSight mission suggest.

The marsquakes detected by InSight show a boundary 15 miles (24 kilometers) deep between two different types of rock that were formed by enormous pools of magma. The presence of these magma pools could completely change what we thought we knew about the early development of Mars.

Already, scientists say the discovery could change what we know about the history of Mars. "One of the big questions in planetary science is whether Earth is unique," said the University of Oxford's Jon Wade in a statement. "If Mars could develop this kind of complex crust without plate tectonics, then maybe the conditions needed for habitability can emerge on more planets than we realized, including those previously dismissed based on size or their apparent lack of tectonic activity."

Earth is shaped by plate tectonics, the shifting of giant slabs of the planet's crust above our planet's molten mantle in a motion that generates earthquakes and volcanoes, but which also creates new land and regulates atmospheric carbon by drawing it out of the atmosphere and re-releasing it though volcanic eruptions. This constant reprocessing results in a fairly complex crust with multiple layers.

However, no convincing evidence has been found that the Red Planet has ever had plate tectonics. Instead, it is what we call a 'stagnant lid' planet, where the entire crust is one unbroken layer. Beneath this solid lid, all the way down to the mantle 23.6 miles (38 km) below the Martian surface, was considered to be fairly homogenous.

But NASA's InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) mission, which operated on Mars's surface between 2018 and 2022, put this to the test. InSight's seismometer was designed to detect tremors from marsquakes triggered by meteorite impacts or shifts in the planet's interior. These seismic tremors would reverberate through Mars, and InSight could learn about the interior structure of the Red Planet based on how they reached the lander.

Thanks to the way these tremors passed through Mars's interior after traveling at different velocities through different kinds of rock, InSight discovered a boundary between two layers of crust, but its existence has not been explained until now.

Researchers at the University of Oxford tasked themselves with figuring it out. Using geothermal models and statistics, the Oxford team identified the two types of rock that best matched the seismic data. They conclude that above 15 miles (24 km) deep is a thick layer of mafic rock, which is rich in iron, magnesium and silica. Below this depth is denser, crystalline ultramafic rock, which contains iron and magnesium but is depleted in silica and which descends a further 8.7 miles (14 kilometers) to the boundary between the crust and the mantle.

It seems as though the rock has become differentiated – the denser material having settled out below the lighter mafic rock. This could only have happened in huge pools of magma that once resided in giant pockets within Mars's crust. Like oil separating from water, the mafic and ultramafic rock separated over time, in a process called differentiation, before the magma cooled and froze the layers in place.

The pockets of magma could have extended for hundreds and possibly even thousands of kilometers around the planet, each pool linked to the others. Giant volcanic systems on Mars such as Olympus Mons and the Tharsis volcanoes would not have been isolated hotspots, but would have been interconnected beneath the surface.

This is something of a surprise – this kind of 'transcrustal magmatism' has only ever been found on Earth before. It's evidence that even though Mars lacked plate tectonics, it could still have undergone a degree of geochemical evolution and deep, complex geology.

This geology could even have supported a habitable environment by regurgitating carbon back into the atmosphere to maintain a greenhouse effect. Because of its small size and therefore low gravity and lack of magnetic field, Mars's atmosphere is notoriously leaky, and over its history, much of its atmosphere – including large quantities of its precious water – has escaped into space.

Large-scale volcanism, powered by interconnected chambers of magma, could have belched greenhouse gases back into the atmosphere, thickening the Martian atmosphere and maintaining warmer temperatures for longer.

But where did the magma come from? The Oxford team points the finger at upwelling from Mars' deep mantle, and with that magma came waves of heat that partially melted the crust, creating more magma. Both these processes took place on Earth during the Archaean Eon, which spanned between 4 and 2.5 billion years ago. On Earth, these processes contributed to the formation of the continents, although Mars' lack of plate tectonics and continents suggest that these processes were not as developed on the Red Planet.

Even so, some models suggest that mantle upwelling contributed to Mars' north–south dichotomy where the north contains mostly lowlands, which could have facilitated a large ocean, and the south is dominated by highlands.

"We've traditionally assumed that volcanism on Mars was relatively simple compared to that on Earth, but this discovery suggests that the planet could sustain massive, long-lived magmatic systems capable of evolving and reprocessing molten rock throughout the crust," said the study's lead author, Tobermory Mackay-Champion, who was previously at Oxford during the research but is now at the University of Bristol.

Mackay–Champion also highlights how this reprocessing of Mars's crust could have left metal deposits nearer the surface than had been thought.

"Mars may hold significantly more near-surface mineral wealth than previously recognized, boosting its potential for future mining, crewed missions and, eventually, permanent settlements," said Mackay-Champion.

While undoubtedly useful for a future outpost on Mars, this does raise the specter of companies pillaging and exploiting the Red Planet for its resources.

The findings were published on June 26 in Nature Astronomy.

Star Fox 64 is the Nintendo game that refuses to fade away, and we're not complaining, especially when the new Switch 2 remake — simply titled Star Fox — amplifies its replay value and expands the original vision with a bunch of new content.

Roughly a decade ago, Star Fox Zero almost killed the franchise for good. The ill-fated Wii U entry's structure and plot stuck staggeringly close to Star Fox 64 (Lylat Wars for us PAL gamers), but no one could definitely answer if it was a remake, reboot, reimagining, or something else entirely.

It being a remake wouldn't have mattered, except that Star Fox 64 3D (for the little brave 3DS) had already done that with strong results. Now in 2026, we're still flying around the same planets with 'Star Fox'.

Considering Fox McCloud's secondary role in the recent Super Mario Galaxy Movie, you'd expect Nintendo to push onward with an all-new game in the enduring science fiction rail shooter series, yet Star Fox seems fated to play the greatest hits again and again. Fortunately, it nails what made Star Fox 64 so enduring and is the most complete take on Team Star Fox's greatest adventure.

The story is the same: The mad scientist Andross is exiled to the unwelcoming planet of Venom by General Pepper for almost destroying Corneria, the fourth planet of the Lylat system.

When suspicious activity is detected on the doomed world a few years later, Team Star Fox goes to investigate and – spoiler alert – James McCloud is killed by Andross following a betrayal from inside the team. Some time passes, and Andross launches an all-out attack against Lylat's forces, so it's time for Team Star Fox (now captained by Fox McCloud, James' son) to set things right.

And yes, his last name is Fox, and he is a Fox. If you're new to the series, there are no humans in this universe, only anthropomorphic animals.

While Star Fox doesn't sacrifice the original's arcade-y nature (you can 'beat it' in under two hours), it makes space for meatier cutscenes which better define the characters and the high stakes of the story.

It's all simple stuff with no real room for twists and turns that never gets in the way of the game's fast pace, but Velan Studios' effort is a commendable reminder that even extremely faithful remakes can add to a classic formula. Shoutout to the new arrangements of memorable musical themes from the original, too; the orchestral refresh simply sounds amazing.

The character redesigns will no doubt be a point of contention. Fox McCloud doesn't look nearly as stylish as in past Star Fox games — or as he does in this year's Mario Galaxy flick — while team members like Slippy Toad (who seems slippery) and Falco Lombardi land right in uncanny valley territory. There's a distinct charm to Star Fox's art direction — and the conversation surrounding the toons proves it — but the presentation no doubt raises the question of how much realism is too much realism for a property as cartoony as this.

The Arwings, enemy ships, and other vehicles look absolutely dashing and move with a smoothness that would've made Nintendo kids in the 1990s levitate, though. Both during missions and in cutscenes, there's speed and weight to the stars of the show, and smaller touches like laser beams briefly illuminating the environments remind us how far graphics have come.

The same could be said about the colorful levels; from Corneria to Solar, there's a vividness to Star Fox's many space locales that sometimes can be even distracting when the screen is filled with foes and incoming attacks.

Star Fox 64's 'pick up and play' nature remains untouched and only lightly upgraded. The control scheme could be more intuitive, but it's not too complex; moving around the screen, executing evasive maneuvers, and shooting down enemies feels snappy. Some of the latter levels weren't as 'tight' as I'd hoped for, but maybe that's just me still adjusting to the unavoidable nuances that come with a full tech rework under the hood.

The highlight, though, may be Switch 2's unique mouse mode, which is put to great use here; playing through the campaign with it plus the cockpit view feels transformative (It was impressive in Metroid Prime 4). Of course, the action runs at 60 frames per second with sharp image resolution in both docked and handheld modes, helping you achieve high scores, no matter which control option you use.

Blasting through the short (but highly replayable) campaign is just the beginning. There are hidden routes to discover, medals to obtain, new challenges to tackle, and the brutal Expert difficulty to clear. Ultimately, Star Fox is all about perfecting high scores and mastering a new iteration of a classic that's been dominated over the decades by the most dedicated pilots. It's Nintendo offering "one last ride" (hopefully) and inviting vets to reexperience the Lylat Wars in new, more demanding ways beyond the first run. On that front, Star Fox is a resounding success.

But it's hard to usher in a future for a dormant series without betting some chips on the casual crowd and newcomers, and I'd say most folks without an already established connection to the series (rail shooters are incredibly niche nowadays) are likely to go through Star Fox's campaign once or twice and then complain about the price tag.

There's actually a lot to Star Fox, but it mostly boils down to replaying the same missions in different ways. It's a retro sensibility that older gamers find captivating, but times have changed, and you have to wonder whether Nintendo should've gunned for an all-new game instead.

The multiplayer offerings shouldn't be ignored, though. Co-op (local or via the wireless GameShare function) lets two players go through the campaign by splitting the Arwing controls into movement and shooting, which is a nice offbeat bit of fun. Online, things get more interesting with a 4v4 competitive mode across three maps with different objectives and plenty of chaos, with NPC starfighters also fighting for control of objectives alongside players.

Matches are fast and intense, with free flight and plenty of power-ups adding to the spectacle and scale of the action. There's not much variety here, but the bones are strong. If they add more maps and modes, it could be something, but as it stands, it feels like one of those obligatory multiplayer modes every game had in the Xbox 360 era

Players willing to pick up the Switch 2 camera can also 'wear' the look of their favorite Star Fox characters VTuber-style while playing online, which is a silly little extra with incredible comedic potential in the right hands. Hardly a game-selling addition, but it's the kind of playful, family-friendly addition we expect from Nintendo.

Star Fox bets big on already established fans and hopes for the best when it comes to onboarding newbies. Will it pay off? Maybe, but 'nostalgia gains' are declining everywhere, and I'm worried that if this doesn't perform, we may be stuck waiting for a new entry that never comes... again.

Star Fox is available now for purchase on Nintendo Switch 2.

A review code for Star Fox was provided by Nintendo.

The universe is ready for its close-up! That's because today marks the day that the Vera C. Rubin Observatory begins it's 10-year mission to shoot the greatest cosmic move ever created.

The decade-long project officially known as the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) is set to revolutionize our view of the universe. That means June 30, 2026 marks the beginning of a new era for astronomy.

"Today, we begin filming the greatest cosmic movie ever made," U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) director Brian Stone said in a statement. "Every night, NSF–Department of Energy (DOE) Rubin Observatory will expand the frontiers of knowledge and strengthen America's global leadership in science and innovation."

The LSST will see Rubin use its 3200-megapixel camera, the largest digital camera ever created, to repeatedly scan the entire sky over the southern hemisphere every few nights. Over the next decade, each point in the sky will be covered 800 times; this will result in an ultra-wide, ultra-high-definition time-lapse record of the cosmos, the scale of which will put any Sci-Fi epic to shame.

And that includes the daring voyage of discovery present in any great Sci-Fi story. Astronomers teaming with Rubin will dive headfirst into the dark universe. That means the dual mysteries of dark energy — the force driving the accelerating expansion of the universe — and dark matter — which secretly seems to be holding galaxies together. Both are invisible to us, yet integral to the universe.

"With the launch of the ten-year Legacy Survey of Space and Time, NSF–DOE Rubin Observatory is opening a new window on the universe. It is embarking on a mission that will redefine modern cosmology and astrophysics," Darío Gil, Under Secretary for Science at the DOE said in the statement. “With its world-class design and tools, Rubin Observatory will capture the dynamic nature of our cosmos and reveal unimagined insights into our universe's biggest mysteries, from our own solar system to the very structure of the universe.

"By seeking to understand the enigmatic phenomena of dark energy and dark matter, we are not just observing the stars; we are striving to grasp the fundamental laws that govern our existence."

The main actors in this LSST production will be a cast of pulsating stars, supernova explosions and fossil records of galaxies. This will not only provide clues as to the nature of dark matter and dark energy, but could also reveal hitherto undiscovered cosmic phenomena.

Rubin will also make an impact on astronomy within the solar system, not just at the vast cosmic distances.

For instance, Rubin is expected to discover millions of new asteroids and comets in our cosmic backyard, becoming the most powerful solar system discovery machine ever created. It is already living up to this potential.

In its first few months of operations, Rubin, which sits atop a mountain in northern Chile, has already discovered 11,000 never-before-seen asteroids, including 33 near-Earth objects and 380 icy minor planets and dwarf planets out past the orbit of Neptune, referred to as trans-Neptunian objects.

It is estimated that the final LSST dataset will contain billions of objects, and its results will be available to all scientists and the general public — truly sparking a new age of cosmic discovery.

"It's taken 20 years of hard science, engineering, and more to get to the point where we can call 'action' as we start rolling on this blockbuster movie of the universe," Phil Marshall, Deputy Director of Rubin Operations for SLAC, said. "Millions of alerts in just the last couple of months show that Rubin is up and running as a discovery machine. Now we're putting it all together."

The past 250 years of optical telescopes have seen revolutionary discoveries and technology that the telescope's inventor, a seventeenth century spectacle-maker by the name of Hans Lippershey, maybe wouldn't have believed possible.

When we look back through the annals of telescope history, we find that a significant turning point came, coincidentally, just five years after the United States' Declaration of Independence was christened.

It was back in England, in 1781. William Herschel had just made what was possibly the greatest astronomical discovery the world had seen up to that point: a new planet, Uranus. The fact that Herschel had found a seventh planet from the sun was revolutionary in itself. All the other planets, from Mercury to Saturn, had been known since antiquity, obvious in the night sky to the naked eye.

Uranus, on the other hand, isn't really visible without optical aid, and its discovery illustrated the power of the telescope to dramatically widen our vistas. Moreover, Herschel found the new planet using a 6.2-inch (157-millimeter) reflecting telescope that he had constructed himself. He was looking through it from the back garden of his home in the Somerset city of Bath.

Herschel was a prolific builder of telescopes, polishing and shaping their speculum mirrors. The 6.2-inch telescope was a midget compared to some of his other beasts, including the famous discovery machine that was the 20-foot, or -meter, in focal length telescope with its 18-inch (457-mm) aperture, and the less successful 40-foot (12-meter) telescope.

Herschel proved that telescopes could do serious science. "As a self-taught astronomer, William Herschel transformed the reflecting telescope from what had generally been thought of as a scientific toy into a serious scientific tool," British science historian Robert Smith of the University of Alberta in Canada told Space.com. "At the root of all Herschel's efforts is his telescope building, because he had to build these big telescopes himself."

Refractors and reflectors

Telescopes come in two main forms: the reflector and the refractor.

Reflectors use mirrors to reflect light to a focal point where the eyepiece is located; refractors use lenses to focus light. In the 18th and 19th centuries, British reflectors like Herschel's were the dominant telescope category, as exemplified by those constructed by the likes of Liverpool's William Lassell and Ireland's Third Earl of Rosse, William Parsons. However, across the English Channel in mainland Europe, refractors, which at the time were optically higher quality, were dominant instead.

"You have to distinguish what's going on in Britain with what's going on elsewhere," said Smith.

Lassell built reflectors with apertures of 24 and 48 inches (61 and 122 centimeters). And the great Leviathan of Parsonstown in Ireland is Lord Rosse's own behemoth, still standing today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the likes of Lassell and Lord Rosse were wealthy, self-taught "grand amateur" scientists, in Europe refracting telescopes were used by academics at universities to make precise measurements of the cosmos, from the orbits of double stars to the distance to stars using parallax.

"On the European continent, refractors were used by professional astronomers whose focus was on precision, whereas for Lassell and Rosse the focus was on collecting more light to see fainter objects," said Smith.

In comes the U.S.

Building large refracting telescopes had its challenges and led to a period referred to as the "Telescope Race," where prestige was equally a motivation alongside science. The "race" was won by the 40-inch (one-meter) refractor at Yerkes Observatory in Chicago in 1897, which cost $500,000 at the time (about $20 million in today's money) and was provided by financier Charles Yerkes who made his money developing Chicago's public transport system, often resorting to bribery in order to win franchises.

Businessmen building telescopes was nothing new, of course: William Lassell made fortunes from brewing, but he also used his own telescopes. What was different now was that men wealthy beyond anyone's dreams saw observatories as vanity projects rather than as scientific instruments to use themselves. The introduction of substantial sums of American money provided by wealthy businessmen was a sea change in both the building of telescopes and the fortunes of astronomy in the U.S.

"I have argued that in the 1880s, America was a bit of an astronomical backwater compared to Europe, but by the 1920s the United States had become the leading nation, certainly in terms of observational astronomy," said Smith.

It wasn't just Yerkes. In California, wealthy landowner James Lick founded the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton after being dissuaded from his original plan to build a giant pyramid as a monument to himself in downtown San Francisco. Percival Lowell, obsessed with his delusions about canals on Mars, founded the Lowell Observatory in Arizona in 1894. And on Mount Wilson in California, something big was stirring in part thanks to benefactor John Hooker.

Reflectors come of age

Size has always been a driving force, a challenge and a problem for telescope builders. Even today, the Yerkes refractor is still the champion refractor, only rivaled by the one-meter Swedish Solar Telescope on La Palma, but even this is stepped down from 42 inches to 39 inches (107 cm to 99 cm). The issue is twofold: the thicker the lens, the more the incoming light is attenuated and hence the greater the light loss, so you lose any benefits a large lens might provide. Plus, the heavier a lens is, the more it will sag and deform, destroying its ability to focus properly.

This glass ceiling, if you'll pardon the pun, was circumvented by reflecting telescopes following a vital development in the mid-1800s. Herschel and his peers had been using mirrors made from speculum, which is a reflective and slightly toxic (thanks to the small quantities of arsenic added to the copper and tin mix) metal that is prone to tarnishing easily. Herschel had to polish his telescope mirrors frequently to keep them spick and span.

Then in the 1850s scientists Léon Foucault and Carl August von Steinheil figured out a way to add a thin layer of silver to glass, creating mirrors that were much more reflective than speculum, that weighed less and which didn't tarnish. This paved the way for building bigger and better reflectors, fulfilling the promise of the work started by William Herschel.

One key figure in the resurgence of the reflecting telescope around the turn of the 20th century was the astronomical optician George Ritchey, most famous today for being one half of the duo who invented the Ritchey–Chrétien telescope design that is popular with amateur astronomers, particularly planetary imagers, and which is also employed on dozens of professional telescopes including the largest ground-based telescopes currently in operation.

Ritchey had built a 0.6-meter (24-inch) reflector at Yerkes before he was hired by George Ellery Hale, who was the director of Mount Wilson Observatory. On Mount Wilson Ritchey designed a 1.5-meter (60-inch) reflector in 1908 and then what would be the largest telescope in the world at that time, the 2.5-meter (100-inch) Hooker Telescope, made possible thanks to a generous financial gift from John Hooker. The Hooker Telescope saw its first light in 1917.

"If I had to pick one key optician around about 1900, I would pick George Ritchey," said Smith. "Though Ritchey's innovative approach sometimes became too innovative for Hale. Maybe 'firing' is too strong a term, but Ritchey left Mount Wilson because he just didn't get on with Hale."

A revolution in cosmology

Despite the parting of ways, Ritchey's legacy was secure because the Hooker Telescope transformed astronomy and cosmology, thanks to the work of Mount Wilson staff astronomer Edwin Hubble and his colleague and assistant, Milton Humason. Thanks to the sheer resolving power of the Hooker Telescope, Hubble was able to resolve the mysterious spiral nebulae as galaxies in their own right, proving that galaxies other than our Milky Way exist.

He was able to confirm their distance by using the Hooker Telescope to identify individual stars in those galaxies, stars we call Cepheid variables, which have a particular relationship between their period of variation and their peak brightness. The work of Henrietta Swan Leavitt tells us that the longer a Cepheid's period of variability, the brighter they become, and knowing how luminous they should be, Hubble could compare that to how bright they appeared in the night sky through the Hooker Telescope and then deduce how far away they and their galaxies must be. Hubble and Humason later measured the redshifts of these galaxies, finding they are almost all moving away from us and that the cosmos is expanding.

The Hooker Telescope was superseded by the Hale Telescope, named after the Mount Wilson director and which has a 5.1-meter (200-inch) mirror and came into operation on Mount Palomar in 1949. The Hale Telescope remained the largest optical telescope in the world until 1975 and the Soviet Union's six-meter BTA-6 telescope, and this wasn't beaten until 1993 and the construction of the first of the twin 10-meter telescopes of the Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. At this size, mirrors have to be composed of multiple individual segments rather than being cast as one solid mirror because gravity would otherwise cause the mirror to deform.

During the second half of the twentieth century, astronomers began to identify the best locations for giant optical telescopes, away from the smog and light pollution of cities whose urban sprawl was growing so great that not even Californian mountaintops could escape them. Today, the best telescopes in the world cluster atop Mauna Kea, on numerous peaks in Chile's Atacama Desert, and in the Canary Islands.

How the Hubble Space Telescope democratized astronomy

For the most exceptional views, you can't beat space itself. In orbit above our obscuring atmosphere, or stationed 1 million miles (1.6 million kilometers) away at the L2 Lagrange point, space telescopes enjoy unprecedentedly clear views of the cosmos. The most recent space telescopes include the James Webb Space Telescope and, launching in September, the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, but the most famous of all is of course the Hubble Space Telescope.

Launched in 1990, Hubble continues against all the odds to push the frontiers of science.

"Its output is staggering," said Smith. It has made over 1.7 million individual observations in the past 36 years, and 23,000 research papers based on those observations have been published by a total of nearly 29,000 astronomers.

"This is the democratization of astronomy," said Smith, and it completes a transformation in astronomy over 250 years in the making. Back when the United States was being founded, astronomers were generally lone wolves, self-taught and self-motivated like William Herschel. Then, throughout the nineteenth century astronomy increasingly became the purview of wealthy men, and even moving into the twentieth century, astronomical discovery was confined to a small group.

"For example, in the early 20th century, the only people who had access to the Mount Wilson telescopes were the staff at the Mount Wilson Observatory, and if you were not on staff then you just couldn't use the largest telescopes in the world, so as an observational astronomer you would be at a disadvantage," said Smith.

While this began to change in the latter half of the twentieth century, with organizations such as the European Southern Observatory and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (now NOIRLab) giving access to telescopes to a wider swathe of people, the Hubble Space Telescope has really spearheaded this democratization.

"People all over the world can use Hubble," said Smith. "It opens up so many possibilities for astronomical research, with thousands of people using it."

From well-heeled enthusiasts to businessmen looking for a legacy, astronomical research has now truly become accessible to people worldwide thanks to the largest telescopes in space and on Earth. Perhaps that is the ultimate achievement of the past 250 years of telescopes.

Over 1,300 deaths have been attributed to a heat wave that swept across Europe and broke temperature records earlier this month.

From its perch in sun-synchronous low Earth orbit, Europe's Sentinel-3 satellite captured data that helps visualize the heat wave and aids researchers in understanding both the causes and effects of the atmospheric phenomena that led to these soaring temperatures.

What is it?

In this image from the European Space Agency (ESA), land surface temperatures are depicted on a scale that depicts hotter temperatures as red and violet. On the date this image was taken, June 23, France recorded its hottest June day ever, according to ESA.

The Sentinel-3 satellite detected surface temperatures as high as 131 degrees Fahrenheit (55 degrees Celsius) in parts of central Spain, western France and northern Africa, while Madrid saw 118 degrees F (48 degrees C), and surface temperatures in Rome reached 111 degrees F (44 degrees C).

Why is it incredible?

Temperatures this high were unprecedented across of much of Europe. Authorities with the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that over 1,300 deaths may be linked to the heat wave. And things may get worse for the continent.

"Europe is the fastest-warming continent on Earth, heating at twice the global average," WHO chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus posted on X.

By providing real-time temperature data over both water and land using its Sea and Land Surface Temperature Radiometer instrument, the Sentinel-3 satellite is providing unprecedented data about these extreme weather events and how they affect populations.

BOULDER, Colorado — After Earth's moon and Mars, where could humans plant their footprints?

The "Humans to Titan Summit 2026" was held here on June 11 and June 12 to explore the concept of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, as the next human exploration destination, post-Mars.

Researchers looked into how demanding such a trek could be and what would be required to make it, along with next steps to further that ambitious goal.

Normalizing the idea

As a first-of-its-kind gathering of experts, the Humans to Titan Summit 2026 was invigorating, taking seriously the prospect of one day sending humans to Titan, said Amanda Hendrix, director of the Planetary Science Institute, which is headquartered in Tucson, Arizona.

Hendrix is also president of the advocacy group Explore Titan and co-author of "Beyond Earth: Our Path to a New Home in the Planets" (Pantheon Books, 2016).

"Everyone recognizes that the reality of this is a long way off," Hendrix told Space.com, "but normalizing the idea   — that Titan is actually a very reasonable destination for humans  — is important."

Taking this goal seriously means that "we can have a next destination in our minds, after Mars," she added. "That keeps the momentum going."

Dense atmosphere

The assembly of experts explored an array of Titan topics, from spacesuits and modes of transportation, habitat designs and airlock concepts to light levels and possible encounters with monsoons and floods on the frigid, exotic moon, which has a weather system based on hydrocarbons rather than water.

Additionally, making use of Titan as a hub for launching sample-return missions to other moons within the Saturn system, like Enceladus, was viewed as a big plus.

So too was utilizing the moon's rich bounty of resources — like methane, nitrogen and oxygen — to fuel expansive, far-deeper exploration beyond Titan itself.

"We've got a lot of planning to do," said Hendrix, "but we have time!"

A top priority is figuring out how to either shorten the trip time to Titan or accommodate it and mitigate the negative effects on astronauts, Hendrix said.

"The top reason in my mind that Titan is such a good spot for humans is the dense atmosphere," Hendrix said. That nitrogen-dominated atmosphere provides natural shielding from harmful radiation of many types.

Precursor missions

Appreciation of what human visitors will face on the moon was boosted by the European Space Agency's robotic Huygens probe, which touched down on Titan on Jan. 14, 2005 as part of the NASA-ESA Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn.

Next up for setting down on Titan is NASA's nuclear-powered Dragonfly, now projected to launch no earlier than 2028 for a six-year voyage to the faraway moon.

During its over three-year surface mission, Dragonfly's rotors will carry it for miles across Titan's surface, auto-piloting its way to a variety of areas. The vehicle is designed to snag samples of surface material for analysis inside the rotorcraft by scientific instruments.

Extraordinarily ambitious

Taking part in the two-day gathering was Scot Rafkin, director of the Department of Space Studies at the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and a planetary and atmospheric scientist. The summit was held at SwRI's Solar System Science & Exploration Division facilities.

"Everyone recognized that sending humans to Titan is extraordinarily ambitious. But history shows that the greatest achievements in exploration begin when people are willing to pursue goals that seem beyond reach," said Rafkin. Sharing with Space.com his own personal thoughts, he said the summit marked "the beginning of a long-term effort to imagine and ultimately achieve something transformative."

Titan is one of the most compelling worlds in the solar system, Rafkin said; it's a place with rivers, lakes, weather, dunes and complex chemistry unlike anywhere else we know of. Pursuing human exploration of Titan, he said, creates a long-term framework and provides a scientific purpose that transcends the moon and Mars.

'Not a question of physics'

Rafkin said that targeting Titan will also accelerate technologies needed not only for exploring that moon but for voyaging throughout the solar system.

"Human exploration of Titan is not a question of physics," said Rafkin. "It is a question of time, technology, and commitment. We understand most of the major challenges. We know many of the critical science and engineering gaps that remain."

Every advance in propulsion, power systems, manufacturing, robotics, computing, life support and communications, Rafkin said, brings Titan closer while simultaneously enabling exploration throughout the solar system.

Not every solution exists today, Rafkin continued, but the path forward is increasingly clear.

Starting a movement

"Some steps can be taken now, such as sending an orbiter to better characterize the Titan system," said Rafkin. "Other capabilities will require decades or even generations of development. The challenge is immense, but it is achievable."

Rafkin said that the summit was not about planning a mission.

"It was about starting a movement. If space exploration has taught us anything, it is that ambitious goals accelerate innovation in ways we cannot fully predict. The destination is Titan, but the investment is in ourselves," Rafkin concluded.

A second Humans to Titan Summit, said Hendrix, is slated around the launch date in 2028 of the NASA Dragonfly mission.

Update for 5:30 p.m. ET on June 30: During its Moon Base update today (June 30), NASA revealed a handful of new lunar-lander contracts and announced that it's considering launching a spare Mars rover to the moon. Read all about it here.

NASA will provide an update about its moon base plans this afternoon (June 30), and you can watch it live.

Agency chief Jared Isaacman and Carlos García-Galán, the manager for NASA's moon base program, "will discuss the next set of awards for new lunar lander missions and preview upcoming opportunities as the agency works toward building a sustained presence on the moon," NASA officials wrote in a media advisory.

The event will begin today at 2:30 p.m. EDT (1830 GMT). You can watch it live here at Space.com, courtesy of NASA, or directly via the agency.

The moon base is a core piece of NASA's Artemis program, which aims to establish a permanent, sustainable human presence on and around Earth's nearest neighbor over the next decade or so.

The Artemis architecture previously called for the assembly of a small space station in lunar orbit called Gateway. In late March, however, Isaacman announced that NASA was pausing its Gateway plans and instead focusing on building a surface outpost.

That base will be constructed near the lunar south pole, which is thought to harbor large amounts of water ice, a key resource that can be used for life support and also be split into hydrogen and oxygen to provide rocket fuel.

Construction of the base will require a variety of work by robotic lunar rovers and landers. Presumably, today's press conference will shine some more light on that work and reveal which companies will be contracted to do it.

NASA has launched two Artemis missions to date. Artemis 1 sent an uncrewed Orion capsule to lunar orbit and back in late 2022, and Artemis 2 launched four astronauts around the moon this past April.

NASA is currently gearing up for Artemis 3, a crewed mission that will test docking procedures between Orion and one or two privately developed lunar landers in Earth orbit.

The agency aims to launch Artemis 3 in mid-2027. If all goes well with that flight, Artemis 4 will land astronauts near the lunar south pole, potentially as early as late 2028.

The first full moon of summer, June's Strawberry Moon, wowed skywatchers worldwide with a spectacular display.

June's full moon was the lowest-hanging full moon of the year for observers in the Northern Hemisphere. That's because a full moon always sits opposite the sun in the sky. During the summer solstice that just passed on June 21, the sun was following its highest path of the year; that means this full moon took the opposite route, skimming low across the southern sky.

It rose in the southeast, remained low above the horizon throughout the night and set in the southwest, delighting photographers around the world. Here are some of the best photos.

Photographer Davide Pischettola captured the Strawberry Moon behind the sailing ship Nave Italia in the Port of Molfetta, Italy, on June 29, 2026.

The June Full moon rises behind the skyline of midtown Manhattan and the Empire State Building in New York City in this vibrant image captured by photographer Gary Hershorn.

Hershorn was also in the right place at the right time to capture this well-positioned photograph of the Strawberry Moon atop the Empire State Building.

Even Lady Liberty appeared to embrace the Strawberry Moon in another striking image by Hershorn, with the full moon seemingly cradled in the Statue of Liberty's hand.

Meanwhile, in California, photographer Tayfun Coskun captured the Strawberry Moon emerging above San Francisco Bay in dramatic fashion.

The Strawberry Moon peeked through a thin layer of cloud as it rose above an ornate rooftop in Meishan, China.

The rich orange Strawberry Moon looks particularly striking in this image captured in Qingzhou, China, on June 29, 2026.

Photographer Robert Nemeti captured this dark and moody image of the Strawberry Moon rising above a Reformed Church in Abaújvár, Hungary, from a vantage point just across the border near Kechnec, Slovakia.

A glowing Strawberry Moon rises behind the ancient Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in this remarkable image captured by photographer Ayhan Mehmet.

Photographer Veysel Altun captured the June full moon rising above a dolphin sculpture on the waterfront in Samsun, Turkiye.

A curious feline stole the spotlight as photographer Osmancan Gurdogan captured the Strawberry Moon rising over the skyline of Istanbul, Turkiye.

If you're looking for a telescope or binoculars to observe the moon, our guides for the best binocular deals and the best telescope deals are here to help. Interested in capturing the night sky? Check out our best cameras for astrophotography and best lenses for astrophotography.

Fancy taking a more in-depth moonlit tour of our rocky companion? Our ultimate guide to observing the moon will help you plan your next skywatching venture, whether it be exploring the lunar seas, mountainous terrain, or the many craters that blanket the landscape. You can also see where astronauts, rovers and landers have ventured with our Apollo landing sites observing guide.